Chapter 2:
LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES (LLS) TYPES AND THEIR IMPLEMENTATION IN EFL AND ESP TEACHING

Boryana Ruzhekova-Rogozherova

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Introduction

As already pointed out, LLS are vitally important with respect to LA enhancement; that is why the current chapter is aimed at their presentation and classification. LLS categorization, offered to reader’s attention, is detailed to a certain extent, information put forward being in compliance with outstanding applied linguists’ insights as well as with author’s research and practical results and ideas.

This chapter layout will be the following: first, LLS definitions and classification will be presented in the perspective of LLS complementariness; next, most essential cognitive procedures implemented in study activities will be revealed, the ones, typically applied in author’s work, being commented on more extensively; finally, crucial approaches functioning within relevant to learners categories teaching, characterized by fighting intralingual and interlingual interference, will be examined.

LLS Definitions

LLS (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2014b) are treated in Weinstein & Mayer’s view (Weinstein & Mayer 1986: 135) as "behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning" supposed to affect "the learner’s encoding process. To Mayer (Mayer 1988: 11) LLS are "intended to influence how the learner processes information". According to Tarone (Tarone 1983: 67) LLS must be incorporated "into one’s interlanguage competence"; in compliance with Rubin (Rubin 1987: 22), LLS "contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs". In O’Maley & Chamot’s perspective (O’Maley & Chamot 1990: 1), LLS represent "the special thoughts and behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new information". Oxford (1992/1993: 18) qualifies LLS as "specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability". LLS function as "a useful toolkit for active, conscious, and purposeful self-regulation of learning" (Oxford 2003: 2).

Quite logically, many authors put a stress in LLS teaching on encouraging "learner reflection" (Lessard-Clouston 1997: 1), "guided reflection" (Nunan 1996) related to learner self-evaluation of success, failure, errors, difficulties, interests, etc., in language acquisition process. Therefore, LLS must definitely, in our view, be targeted at the better awareness of form, functions and use of specific teaching / learning context language categories.

We subscribe to Lessard-Clouston’s view (Lessard-Clouston 1997) regarding the relevance of studying the teaching circumstances, such as, learners’ motivation, interests, learning styles, etc., while working on LLS. Teaching LLS is accordingly supposed to comply with specific context.

To sum up, LLS are deliberately used tools, approaches, procedures and techniques, promoting learners’ mastering of taught categories and skills on the basis of their enhanced understanding; hence, we believe LLS teaching should compulsorily and primarily focus on LA boosting techniques, preconditioning retaining, processing, use of language material, tightly related to learner "interlanguage competence".

Basically, LLS are classified into the following groups: cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective and social (Oxford 2003).

Cognitive strategies include, among others: analysis, note-taking, summarizing, outlining, reorganizing information, developing knowledge schemes, practicing structures (Oxford 2003), comprehension strategies, such as, making predictions as to the use of specific categories, patterns or vocabulary, determining specific purposes prior a task, drawing on prior knowledge to make inferences, meaning inferring through key words, word-formation, discourse markers, charts, illustrations, skimming text sections and referring to some more informative ones¹⁸, EL ↔ NL/FL₁ translation of words or structures, teaching contrastively and comparatively EN/NL/FL₁ categories in terms of form, semantics and function (CT and CpT being frequently applied author’s approaches ), etc.

Metacognitive strategies, aimed at supporting cognitive ones, are related to: identifying one’s own learning needs, task planning, organizing materials, evaluating one’s task achievement, assessing any LLS individual success (Oxford 2003), getting aware of one’s knowledge about the topic in the process of learning, attention focusing on tasks, dividing a task into subtasks, identifying hardships and asking for assistance, setting learning goals (rf. FSL Guide 2008), etc.

Memory-related strategies enable learners to memorize information by means of acronyms, rhymes, mental representations, flashcards, keywords (Oxford 2003), vocabulary / structure repetition, keeping personal records of vocabulary and structures, associating new categories with similar / equivalent categories in terms of form and / or semantics in NL/FL₁, practicing, reusing acquired material (rf. FSL Guide 2008), etc.

Compensatory strategies encompass guessing from the context, replacing by different means a missing form to achieve desired value (rf. Oxford 2003), rephrasing, circumlocution (rf. FSL Guide 2008), etc.

Affective strategies comprise identifying one’s mood and anxiety (Oxford 2003), trying to reduce anxiety level and to positively motivate oneself for tasks.

Social strategies incorporate asking for clarification, verification (Oxford 2003), being interested in sociolinguistic conventions and experimenting with them, collaborating with others on tasks and problem solution (rf. FSL Guide 2008), etc.

Essential EFL and ESP cognitive procedures implemented in study activities

Analyzing the above presented LLS types, it can be concluded from theory and practice, on the one hand, that all strategies are mutually complementary and interconnected, frequently jointly participating in study activities, and, on the other, that cognitive and metacognitive approaches, which are strongly interrelated, cognitive ones being supported by metacognitive ones, and vice-versa, inherently include and precondition remaining techniques (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2014b, 2016, 2017a,b). Thus, for example, achievement evaluation and objectives setting are impossible without some essential at least knowledge acquisition; however, determining adequate and feasible objectives, appropriate questions asking, etc., corroborates successful mental representation formation through better understanding (rf. above as to LA components). What is more, categories associations, studied forms recycling, rephrasing, team working, relating taught language to social conventions and contexts, learning motivation enhancement stemming from lack of learning anxiety, etc., are inherently related to cognitive approaches (cognitive and metacognitive LLS jointly referred to as cognitive approaches, being inextricably connected - Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2018), social, memory and affective techniques being impossible without improved understanding.

Hereby will be presented essential cognitive procedures, some of which are partly in compliance with Schleppegrell & Bowman (1986), while some others stem from author’s research and practice¹⁹. Most crucial ones will be later on described in more details.

• Predicting used grammar / vocabulary from content;

• Predicting use of vocabulary and grammar categories forms based on general context, video materials, charts, diagrams;

• Key words exploration;

• Word-formation analysis;

• Differentiating between functions of vocabulary items based on word-formation indices (e.g. negation prefixes, agent suffixes, noun-, adjective- or verb-formation suffixes);

• Discourse markers and pattern observation;

• Charts, illustrations analysis;

• Categories values and functioning hypothesizing, testing out and verifying hypotheses;

• Differentiating, based on context, between similar in form categories, e.g. past simple forms / past participles / passives / -ed adjectives; present participles, adjectives, gerunds;

• Consolidating vocabulary / grammar meanings and functions by means of providing definitions, synonyms and antonyms;

• Predicting and formulating ideas (and clothing them into words) from study material titles, pictures, drawings, formulae and diagrams;

• Carrying out information transfer based on tables, diagrams and drawings in structured activities filling in, thus consolidating understanding and use of language categories and functions;

• Building questions from headlines;

• Answering formulated questions by prediction and through researching concerned text sections;

• Finding out the author’s point of view on an issue;

• Formulating learners’ individual perspective on the same issue;

• Discovering general text information and specific details through answering comprehension questions;

• Concluding and summarizing;

• Paraphrasing; carrying out grammar transformations and analyzing transformation process in terms of form / semantics; joining sentences by pronouns or conjunctions;

• Marking statements as "true" or "false" and justifying it based on materials;

• Dividing text materials into sections with respect to content and functions;

• Looking for patterns in terms of text building, categories and structures use;

• Investigating and recognizing text organizational patterns based on their characteristics: retelling (consecutive past simple events and processes), describing (past continuous details along with past simple story), describing a process (enumerating stages, sequencing adverbs), characterizing an invention, instrument, equipment (prevailing passives), requiring information (general, specific questions), speaking about responsibilities (modality), etc.;

• Reordering jumbled sentences or paragraphs into a coherent text;

• Looking for specific categories in texts and underlining them specifically;

• Analyzing patterns and underlined forms, making conclusions as to form / meaning / use;

• Contrastive teaching (CT)²⁰ and comparative teaching (CpT) procedures, among which:

- Translating some patterns and underlined forms into NL and / or FL1 and comparing originals and equivalents in terms of form / meaning / use;

- Making conclusions concerning contrasted forms based on carried out comparisons, e.g. form, meaning and use degree of overlapping; making conclusions as to the implementation of knowledge about semantic / formal overlaps in semantically / formally identical or similar categories in EFL / ESP translation;

- Exploring EFL / ESP materials for similar language (form / semantics) structures and analyzing them in terms of similarities / differences or conducting comparative teaching (CpT) (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2014a); carrying out analysis, based on contrasts between established convergent forms and their NL / FL₁ equivalents through EN ↔ NL / FL₁ translation; performing opposition pair analysis, e.g., -ed / -ing adjectives;

- Contrastive error analysis;

• Helping learners in learning process parameters evaluation - realize through appropriate questions and activities the types of learning problems they experience and groups of language categories involving understanding and implementation hardships, degree of achievement, acquired general or specific knowledge, types of hardships, thus facilitating students’ decision making with respect to individual and/or teacher-guided remedial work (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2016, 2017a,b);

• Setting learning objectives and tasks with respect to needs and progress, study materials organizing, asking for assistance after having analyzed problem issues (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2014b, 2015a);

• Self-correction and peer correction; correction justification;

• Error sources revealing to learners;

• Learner text creation involving specific generative situations.

Before examining LLS teaching within the perspective of crucial to learners categories, we shall proceed with a more detailed CT and CpT procedures description, these approaches being really frequently applied in author’s EFL / ESP teaching, on the one hand, and, on the other, encompassing a series of cognitive strategies, among the above ones. NL use in ELT, though pertaining to a larger, CT approach, will be individually considered due to its crucial importance if purposefully implemented.

Contrastive Teaching

This approach implementation is essentially motivated by the fact that at least 50% of learner errors, in compliance with Danchev research (Danchev 1991), are interference errors, and, in addition, contrastively presenting taught categories to learners is, in James (n.d.) and other linguists perspective, a stressing mechanism, contributing to better noticing, and, this way, to better grasping of features, based on two (or more) languages comparisons.

CT introduced by James (1980: 154), is an approach which "involves presenting to the learner at the same time all the terms in a linguistic system of L2 which, as a system, contrasts with the corresponding L1 system" (James (1980: 154). This strategy was initially aimed at preventing and overcoming native language (NL) interference. However, theoretical and practical research evidence, widening and specifying the above definition, has appeared over the years (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2011: 42). According to numerous researchers (rf. Corder 1971, 1973, 1981, 1983; Odlin 1989; Selinker 1969, 1972, 1983; Danchev 2001; Shopov 2002; Pencheva & Shopov 2003; Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2007a,b, 2008a,b, 2009a,b, 2010, 2011, 2012a,b,c, etc.), FL₁ features are largely susceptible to influence FL₂ acquisition, alongside NL impact, though the influence of FL_{2, n} → FL₁, for example, cannot be excluded, especially in case of FL₂ more intense learning and use. Investigation has proved likewise that apart from negative, positive transfer should also be explored and benefitted from (James 1980, 1992), similarities and differences in terms of form, meaning and use need to be studied and put forward, applied not only in research materials, but also in ELT (ESP, FLT) manual and course book preparation, in curricula development and in learning activities, study texts and materials design; it has also become evident that frequent CT implementation, in combination with other cognitive procedures, at all levels of language description and teaching stages, along with error correction, usually yields positive results. Divergences and convergences investigation and learner-appropriate explanation cast a light on the functioning of a linguistic system (and better, systems), thus favourably affecting LA building not only in ELT, but also in NL and/or in FL_{1, n}.

How is CT implementation corroborated, though, in the perspective of contrastive and applied linguistics?

In compliance with general translatability theory (Chomsky 1971 - rf. to in Allen & Van Buren 1971; Danchev 2001; Danchev & Alexieva 1974, etc.) all languages possess a unified semantic structure²¹ being accomplished by means of specific for each language transformation rules. This theory underlies the asymmetry of linguistic sign principle (or interlanguage asymmetry) (Danchev 2001, Danchev & Alexieva 1974), deep structures being accomplished in surface structures through diverse language means in different languages. Thus, any FL_1...n learning process involves language transfer stemming from unconscious or inner translation, inevitably occurring in transformations accompanying a FL utterance formation (Lyudskanov 1969, also in Baylon & Fabre 1978). This mechanism namely makes any FL mastering possible, language transfer representing an essential FL learning component as in cognitive perspective new knowledge structure formation is infallibly based on comparison with old, similar to newly acquired structures and values (Selinker 1972, Leontiev 1970 in Danchev 1982). It must be pointed out that transfer, equivalent to calquing, encompasses all levels of language, positive transfer being successful, whereas interference, bad calquing (rf. Danchev 1978, 1982).

Thus, CT is strongly scientifically motivated due to the above referred to FL learning mechanism; aimed at contrastively presenting in EFL (and ESP) taught categories characteristics in terms of form / semantics similarities (convergences) and differences (divergences), CT has proved really useful in interference reduction and minimization, on the one hand, and, on the other, in facilitating learning process, along with other LLS, benefitting from convergences / divergences highlighting, this way enhancing learners’ LA parameters by means of increased noticing, detection, consciousness and understanding.

Stemming from CT approach features, CT can be treated as promoting noticing due to "contrastive salience" (rf. James’ view²²). CT stress has not only been theoretically founded, but also corroborated in practice; an experiment in which a contrastive evidence group did better than a group which was given "only comprehensible input" (Schmidt 2010) is worth referring to. Likewise, to improve LA Schmidt (2010) recommends "conscious comparisons between their own [learners’] output and target language input", which evidently requires interlanguage analysis, error analysis and thus, CT, combined with CpT, in our view. In the same perspective, Ellis (2006, 2008, referred to by Schmidt 2010), affirms that L₂ learners need intentional attention when failing to notice not really prominent cues or cues that "need to be processed differently from the way they are in the L1", a statement which definitely lays stress on contrastive approach relevance in noticing enhancement, helping learners realize that similar forms do not necessarily exhibit analogous values. Benefits of contrastive forms presentation and explanation can be likewise supported by a statement of Penz (2001: 104), who holds that "developing awareness of the relationship between mother tongue and foreign language education is a particularly important factor of language awareness"²³.

Comparative Teaching

CpT²⁴ is performed in the process of comparing similar in form and/or meaning categories within a language system in the objective of fighting intralingual interference²⁵, which is preconditioned by the existence of completely / partially convergent forms, corresponding to completely / partially divergent meanings and vice-versa - completely / partially convergent meanings, conveyed by completely / partially divergent forms. Quite frequently, wrong understanding and implementation of L₁ language items stemming from intralingual interference, leads to similar type of erroneous grasping and use of L₂ language, this way intralingual transfer causing interlingual one. Thus, logically, both strategies, CT and CpT, are often applied together, interlingual errors having the ability to generate intralingual ones, and vice-versa. CpT, likewise CT, plays the role of highlighting mechanism²⁶, contributing to LA enhancement regarding form ↔ meaning / use interaction, hence, both approaches representing consequently powerful cognitive LLS. CT and CpT corroborate each other in LA improvement as "linguistic information to be detected, noticed, selected, consciously attended to, processed, understood and memorized needs to be previously highlighted, underlined, drawn attention to" (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2014a)²⁷.

Native language implementation in EFL and ESP teaching

NL use in EFL and ESP, based on CT approach²⁸, is treated as efficient cognitive LLS, opposing some still frequently adhered to views insisting on teaching English exclusively through English, revealing the numerous advantages in terms of LA enhancement by means of NL / EN comparisons. NL application in ELT and ESP²⁹ is justified by the fact that from a cognitive perspective, a FL, respectively English, does not apply mother tongue acquisition pattern. Learners, having already mastered at least one linguistic code (NL), experience transfer (positive transfer and negative transfer or language interference), deriving from NL (or/and a FL₁) pervasive, inherent inner translation, which, consequently, is crucial to any language acquisition³⁰. In applied linguistics perspective, with respect to CT theory and practice, no language code can exist, develop and function independently from the others in a learner’s consciousness. What is more, all types of various codes linguistic knowledge specifically intersect, a fact, which justifies plurilingualism³¹ and bilinguism³² essence, existence and construction. Plurilingualism and bilinguism building mechanisms founded on conscious and unconscious knowledge transfer, further motivate really underlying NL use in EFL, ESP and FLT in general, taking into account plurilingualism creation importance. Plurilingual knowledge formation obviously involves contrastive understanding of taught items in terms of form / semantics / functioning within two languages at least (FL / NL) or, according to standard plurilingualism acceptation, within three languages, NL / Fl₁ / FL₂, Bulgarian, English and French, in compliance with author’s research (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2012c).

Hence, FL and NL compartmentalization is impossible in theory as well as in practice.

What is more, in accordance with communication theory, meaning is not drawn out, but put together (Chandler 1994). Thus, overall meaning is gradually constructed through all message components adjustment, in the process of encoding and decoding, until the best clarity and unequivocalness extent has been reached (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2013a). This meaning construction, being tightly dependent on LA (rf. above), requires logically LLS application, and, as it has already been shown on many occasions, thorough or fragmentary NL translation and/or explanation can function as a powerful tool in the achievement of higher understanding degree.

Some beneficial sub strategies of NL application in ELT and ESP, all of them related to CT, will be briefly treated in the following lines. It must be pointed out that, not only theoretically, but also practically, advantages of purposeful and deliberate NL implementation in EFL have been revealed through successfully conducted teaching experiments³³ and research on NL founded teaching approaches (sub strategies) implementation. Experiments testify that learners’ LA has increased not only as a result of enhanced understanding, but also, due to reduced learner anxiety and guaranteed naturalness of expression (stemming from NL purposeful application), further motivating and stimulating FL learning process.

NL use through some sub strategies in EFL and ESP teaching

Here below are presented four NL use sub LLS, which may be treated as variations of CT approach, reflecting its functioning principles. Some author’s commentaries will be offered below.

1. The New Concurrent Method, which is characterized by teacher-performed language switching, from FL to NL and vice-versa at crucial for explanation points (Jacobson 1990 in Cook 2001).

2. Community Language Learning (CLL), which is performed through FL / NL code switching spontaneously carried out by students themselves, NL use progressively decreasing as knowledge improves. At lower stages of learning, students formulate utterances in NL, translated by teacher (Cook 2001).

3. Dodson’s Bilingual Method, which involves teacher reading and FL sentence interpretation into NL, awareness being tested by eliciting a FL reaction to beforehand obtained NL utterance (Bilingual 1985 in Cook 2001).

4. CT approach, which may be combined with Concurrent, CLL and Bilingual methods components.

FL ↔ NL teacher-performed switching in the New Concurrent Method not only facilitates hard to understand issues or language, in author’s view, but it also stimulates and corroborates carrying out of contrasts between both languages, this way serving as highlighting through similarities and differences presentation to learners. This is the teacher (lecturer) who can decide to what extent contrasts must be explicit to students.

CLL approach is founded on a similar FL/NL code switching principle, though this time essentially performed by students; learner and teacher (at initial levels) translations likewise precondition CT sub strategies application, either carried by learners or prompted by teacher (lecturer).

Dodson’s Bilingual Method is based again on CT LLS and CT sub LLS, as it implements FL → NL → FL interpretation, put into practice by teacher and, then, by learners, leading to FL/NL contrasts establishing, the explicitness degree of which can be obviously decided with respect to teaching circumstances.

CT approach combined with already commented on techniques characteristics relies on FL/NL deliberate contrasts establishing within taught categories, thus promoting contrastive prominence, noticing and understanding, leading to LA improvement in FL as well as in NL, and also, on FL ↔ NL translation, performed either by lecturer or by learners, where appropriate.

Having described in some detail underlying LLS, forthcoming sections will consider most essential LLS implemented in author’s work in the process of teaching mainly the following categories: diatheses (active / passive, basically), perfect, progressive aspects, - ing words (participle, adjective, gerund), -ing / -ed adjectives in EFL and ESP perspective, learner performance often testifying to the need of more specific emphasis, while presenting mentioned material. Word-formation elucidation and related cognitive approaches will be treated at the end in CT and CpT perspective.

LLS implementation in diatheses teaching

The category of Voice has turned out on many occasions difficult to grasp to many learners due to specific mental concepts or representations (MR) which need to be elucidated to average high and/or higher students³⁴ in some detail, and namely, MR concerning grammar / semantic subject (doer) and object (recipient), active / passive verb phrase, copula verb attaching a process result to a passive subject (doer.)

Essential cognitive approaches implemented to construct and consolidate MR are the ones presented below. It must be pointed out again that in author’s perspective cognitive approaches refer to a larger group of strategies, encompassing mainly traditionally named cognitive and metacognitive LLS, due to their constant interaction (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2016, 2017a,b). Taking into consideration that (rf. above) cognitive approaches mastering largely preconditions remaining LLS, as cognitive approaches often contain memory-related, compensatory and affective LLS, these ones will be also subsumed under the term of cognitive approaches, neither memory-related, nor compensatory or affective strategies being able to function without the capacity of analyzing form / semantics, of making predictions and verifying them, or concluding, of extracting information based on patterns.

Cognitive approaches in diatheses teaching

Hereby displayed approaches mainly concern Active / Passive Voice teaching to learners. Some crucial teaching strategies will be further supported by means of exemplifying utterances, paragraphs, diagrams, formulae and PowerPoint presentation slides.

• Form / semantics analysis performed jointly and separately on active and passive structures;

• Active ↔ passive transformations: analyzing "switches" of arguments in terms of sentential functions;

• Performing pattern analysis: observation on functions and/or meanings;

• Underlining in the purpose of highlighting identical or similar structures;

• Schemes use in presenting active / passive dependences;

• Deductive - inferential approach: deducing active / passive voice formula (ref. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2012b, 2017c) based on form/semantic functions clarification introducing learners to types of diatheses;

• Making inferences as to componential (and overall) meaning founded on CpT approach;

• CT approach - NL / FL₁ translation and comparisons with NL / FL₁ corresponding structures;

• Error correction - based on CT, CpT, AV / PV formulae, along with AV ↔ PV verb phrase transformations regularities;

• Guiding learners into thinking about difficulties and / or easily understood items within studied periphrasis teaching / learning process;

• Getting aware, to some extent, of the reasons predetermining hardships or lack of difficulties;

• Consciously performing active ↔ passive transformation steps and explaining transformation procedure hardships at each stage;

• Building a remedial strategy as to problems overcoming by means of revising voice essence, essential diatheses formulae, recapitulating verbs 3^rd forms in the perspective of past participle resultativity, passivity and adjectives similarity;

• PV structure and formulae repetition, accompanied by explanation;

• Graphically and mentally representing structures through formulae, schemes, patterns, transformation schemes to precondition better understanding, and, thus, memorization;

• Rephrasing an AV ↔ PV utterance in case of missing vocabulary;

• Constructing a PV example based on jumbled, though actualized words;

• Constructing a PV example based on words - concepts only;

• Constructing a PV example based on schemes, images, video sequences and graphics;

• Speaking about emphasis differences involving the Passive in some types of literature;

• Motivating oneself into AV/PV material learning by getting aware of AV/PV features and use, this way reducing anxiety;

• Interest and positive emotions stimulating through informing learners on PV learning advantages stemming from this category wide use in scientific and technical literature, etc.;

• Positive emotions stimulating by means of short films or sequences illustrating amusingly and originally voice essence;

• Collaborating with others in tasks solutions;

• Conducting pair work;

• Performing pair correction and elucidation;

• Building dialogues using the studied category;

• Teaching learners how to ask for information in English / NL alternatively by means of AV / PV structures;

• Helping students ask questions;

• Task-oriented student text generation and created text analysis.

Passive / Active voice LLS exemplification

Form / semantics analysis, pattern analysis, carrying out structure transformations, transformation procedure analysis, categories schematic presentation, obtained information summarizing, CT and CpT

Form / semantics analysis, for instance, promotes learner understanding of voice category essence³⁵ to the extent in which students acquire practical grasping of AV / PV components semantic functions as well as grammar / semantics relationships. Such analysis encompasses many sub strategies, which can be also independently used, and related to pattern exploration, conclusions based on pattern investigation, diagrams creation, interpretation, etc. Form / semantics analysis success greatly preconditions teaching / learning success as most learner implementation errors derive from lack of understanding or poor grasping of arguments’ role within AV / PV structures. Form / semantics analysis likewise facilitates transformations carrying out as well as transformation procedure analysis, leading to better awareness of structures, their components, functions and use, and, consequently, to much better implementation in practice. Obtained information summarizing is usually performed through learner answers, and their analysis, of lecturer purposefully oriented questions, this approach contributing to understanding enhancement as well as to taught material consolidation. As already commented on in CT and CpT sections in this chapter, these two strategies, which serve as essential highlighting and explanatory mechanism, involve as sub components some of the above listed approaches (rf. cognitive approaches list).

Form / semantics analysis success is preconditioned by exemplifying PV sentences presentation, which need to be followed by elicitation questions focusing learners’ attention on specific PV periphrasis components and their interrelationships, along with meaning specificity. A few instances will be offered below to illustrate this preparatory approach. Examples³⁶ are implemented in the ESP on geotechnics course at the University of Transport, Sofia (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2015a):

1. Geotechnical engineering is based on the principles of soil and rock mechanics.

2. Soil has been used throughout human history as a material for flood control, irrigation purposes, burial sites, building foundations, dykes, dams, and canals.

3. Geophysical exploration is sometimes carried out by means of measurement of seismic waves, surface-wave methods, and electromagnetic surveys.

4. Footings are normally constructed from reinforced concrete cast onto the soil, and are typically embedded into the ground.

5. Slab foundations are designed by engineers to support the entire structure by a single slab of concrete.

6. Gravity walls are equipped with a setback, or batter, to improve wall stability.

7. The wall face is made of precast, segmental concrete units.

Passive forms are underlined to provide learners with the opportunity of pattern recognition and componential analysis. What is more, by-phrases, if any, are likewise specifically stressed, this way prompting students thinking of its supplementary essence, on the one hand, and, on the other, of the existing difference between a typical by-phrase, introducing semantic doer of process in the passive, and by means of, referring to a process performance means, and not, to its doer. Prepositions from, with and of are similarly emphasized on, to direct attention into their semantics, expressing material or a kind of means, differing from the instrumental object.

Learners may be also asked clarification (elucidation) questions (see below), further preparing them for schemes, formulae use, CT, CpT and other LLS implementation. Needless to say, not all questions can be universally applicable; they may vary in terms of content, expression and number, depending on learners’ language (EN, NL, FL₁) knowledge, interests, motivation, preferred strategies use, degree of understanding, teaching / learning time and learning objectives.

Elucidation questions asked to students with respect to the above examples

"How many components do phrases in bold have?"; "Can you read aloud the sentences grammar subjects?"; "Do foundations or walls perform any actions?"; "Are they consequently active or passive subjects?"; "Who is the real doer in the above utterances?"; "Is the semantic (real) doer mentioned and where exactly?"; "Which is the preposition introducing the argument (sentence component) expressing doer of process?"; "Is there a difference between by, of, from and with prepositions use with the passive and what does it consist in?"; "Which tense or aspect are the utterances in?"; "Can you detect any similarities between the examined passive periphrasis and categories, such as, the perfect and -ed adjectives?"; "How are they similar?" (lecturer - provided appropriate examples and guidance); "Can you translate illustrative examples into Bulgarian (or French for French FL₁ learners)?" (offered assistance if needed); "Are there similarities between both languages structures?"; "Where exactly can similarities be found?", etc.

Schemes use; PowerPoint presentation slides application

Thus, attention will be drawn to developed diagrams and schemes implementation³⁷ in voice category teaching; these can be displayed either on the board or by means of PowerPoint presentation slides as below. PowerPoint presentations, characterized with vividness, interest and motivation enhancement, the ability to display attractively, and, thus, to corroborate noticing, taught material features, are a useful teaching means within the passive, as well as within other language categories.

Slide A, for example, is aimed at elucidating AV characteristic Agent ↔ Patient relationship by means of an illustrative AV utterance scheme; AV components are typically underlined, questions are asked to learners so that through lecturer guidance they start to realize AV grammar / semantics level coincidences. Letters S and O are used to refer to subject and object; S1, S2, O1, O2, respectively meaning grammar subject, semantic subject (agent - doer), grammar object and semantic object (patient); A and B stand for subject and object components. Arrows in:

A (S1, S2) →→→→→→→ B (O1, O2) (AV) convey active (strong transitive) doer → recipient AV relationship, grammar object receiving activity result, originated by subject (doer). Bold and italics underlining is likewise commented on to the extent it logically appears, though shifted, in the following PV describing slide (slide B).

As it can be noticed, similar strategies are logically implemented in slide B construction, focusing on diatheses understanding deepening as well as on grammar / semantic functions lack of coincidence, characteristic for the passive. Learners can be asked observation elicitation questions with the purpose of formulating hypotheses as to AV / PV components role, diatheses values and purpose in general, AV / PV semantic differences preconditioning categories use. To facilitate students’ work, their attention is drawn at specific underlining in both, A and B slides, which they are asked to compare. Learners likewise compare arrows use in slide B with the above one; typical to PV periphrasis scheme B (S1, O2) ←←←←←←←← A (O1, S2) expresses the opposite to slide A relationship in which the passive subject plays the part of an activity recipient, assuming process result.

Hereby implemented strategies in slide C1 also involve information summarizing, encouraging learners to verbalize AV ↔ PV transformations based on previous slides procedures and explanation. Students are also informed about by-phrase optional in some utterances status; learners are told by preposition is underlined in the example to remind them about by-phrase use specificity. To provide more illustration, appropriate examples may be also offered to learners’ attention, e.g. "This painting was made in the end of 18^th century"; students are told that we may not know who the painter was or that such information may turn out to be unnecessary in a specific context, which, hence, does not justify by-phrase existence in this typical, though, PV sentence. If allowed by the teaching circumstances, this PV utterance AV equivalent may be also presented, as below; 0 by someone stands for 0 use (or no use) of the phrase.

The following AV / PV teaching slides not only display the above strategies application, but also, some elements of CpT approach, involving comparisons between the Passive, Perfect and -ed -adjectives, similar in some respect categories.

Implemented strategies in slide C2 below illustrating AV verb phrase decomposition in transformation process partly overlap with the above mentioned essential approaches, this time the applied scheme being much more abstract than these ones used beforehand as students are supposed to become aware to some extent that a single verb (or a verb phrase) in the Active requires a two-componential complex in the Passive in transformation. Appropriate explanatory strategies, though, preparing the following slide elucidation, AV / PV formulae, and laying emphasis again on resultative and attributive passive characteristics evident through CpT with the Perfect and -ed adjectives, turn out to be really beneficial as students gradually become aware of the fact that the passive subject receives a process result attributed to it by means of copula verb be, most often. To reveal passive resultativity, learners may be shown, in compliance with the teaching circumstances, PV / adjective similarity, based on attribution, through exemplifying sentences. It can be also mentioned that resultativity, a common feature shared by the passive, -ed adjectives, past participle and the perfect is rather visible in transformations, e.g., "Reinforced concrete is concrete which has been reinforced by steel."³⁸ To achieve more clarity, decomposition scheme is preceded by the above exemplifying utterances (slides A and B), this time stress being put on AV / PV verb phrase.

Thus, the AV phrase must necessarily decompose into a larger PV phrase, comprising the copula, along with the past (perfect or passive) participle³⁹. This slide, along with slide D, is aimed at activity / passivity concepts progressive elucidation, proper AV / PV components function understanding, preconditioning not only successful AV → PV, but also PV → AV transformations, correct PV utterances building and, likewise, intralingual interference minimization, as learners frequently construct the passive verb phrase erroneously, due to confusing the passive with "sequence of tenses" transformations. Adequate explanatory procedures, though, help students realize "sequence of tenses" nature is related to temporal reasons, and, namely, to shifting a coordinate system, a point of departure or a point of view positioning a process on the time axis, whereas, PV verb phrase transformations involve only above mentioned AV verb phrase decomposition, preserving tense, aspect, modality in the Active, voices essence being based on sentence components functions and components interrelations.

Slide D implemented strategy involves previous slides summarizing and more freely analyzing both essential diatheses structures in terms of form / semantics / use. CpT approach in terms of passive resultativity mentioning (rf. above) may be also applied if needed to achieve better understanding.

Slides E1, E2, E3 applied strategies combine cognitive with metacognitive ones, both types most often intertwining and mutually complementing each other⁴⁰. Typically cognitive ones are related with gradually performed transformations based on AV / PV componential functions analysis, AV / PV formulae (rf. above) implementation in transformation process, EN / NL (or FL₁ French) translation of original example and its PV transformation, obtained utterances consistency checking through componential analysis in compliance with both voices functions. CT elements may be likewise applied in translation process, laying briefly emphasis on English / Bulgarian /French diatheses similarities in terms of form / semantics / use⁴¹. Metacognitive strategies, on the other hand, involve corroborating learners’ awareness on AV / PV issues degree of understanding due to stimulated learner form / semantics analysis by presented and explained in detail transformation sequences. Hence, students are supported in formulating and asking questions, and, this way, in a better awareness achievement, tightly related to mental concepts formation with respect to diatheses, their components, specific and overall functions.

Both final slides F and G, focusing consecutively on AV → PV and PV → AV transformations, are aimed at understanding consolidation through knowledge practical implementation, again achieved by means of strategies such as componential analysis, transformations and checking transformation coherence with original examples. Learners are provided with the opportunity to apply theoretical understanding into practice, shifting components parts in transformations and correctly transforming AV ↔ PV verb phrase in compliance with slides C2 and E1 -E3 directions. To attract again learner attention to verb phrase AV → PV transformation, slide F utterances need to be identical apart from verb phrase form (tense, aspect, modality); students, having exercised this type of transformation, may be offered next utterly differing exemplifying utterances in slide G.

CT approach in diatheses teaching

The following section aims at revealing in more details, as already mentioned, ideas as to CT strategy implementation within diatheses teaching. CT advantages, having been presented above, will not be theoretically discussed; it needs to be observed though, that learners’ LA does benefit from CT (combined with CpT) implementation, which can be revealed through carried out surveys analysis⁴².

Thus, for example, within a survey performed with high school students with FL₁ French and FL₂ English (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2014a), passive periphrasis contrastive examination on the basis of comparison with French translation equivalents was assessed with 63,89% utility degree with respect to this category mastering; different passive structure types in English and in French presented by means of illustrative utterances, CT being combined with CpT, received a score of 62,5% of utility degree; illustrating relationships types, in both languages, between a PV example components in terms of form /semantics, making use of CT and CpT, was scored with 69,44% of approval;general English / Bulgarian comparisons in terms of PV form / semantics were deemed 55,56% helpful; AV → PV transformations of English examples accompanied by French translation of original English utterances and analogous AV → PV transformations of translated utterances, combining again both CT and CpT approaches, were evaluated as 76,39% beneficial, whereas commenting on French → English equivalences from a passive utterances translation corpus was assessed as 50% favourable to learner LA enhancement.

Another survey, this time carried out with higher school students (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova2012c), likewise witnesses to high utility rate of CT approaches applied in PV, and diatheses, in general; thus, for example, assessment of comparisons in practical perspective between English and Bulgarian PV structures,encompassing CT and CpT approaches, amounts to 66,67% of utility; English → Bulgarian translation of numerous PV exemplifying utterances, similarly involving both techniques, was assessed with 92,59% of usefulness; analysis of context parameters in voice determination in brackets opening, accompanied by translation in the purpose of better elucidation, combining form / semantics analysis and CT, received 85,19% of learner approval.

A few CT approach preparatory steps

The implementation of the above mentioned, within survey results, CT sub strategies, can be prepared through introducing learners (to a different extent with respect to their needs and objectives) to typical as well as to more peculiar, in their view, types of passives in English as well as in French and Bulgarian, such as the examples below. Some types of instances across languages may be analyzed in more detail in terms of form / semantics, and also can be schematically presented (rf. to above slides). These approaches application leads to better understanding of diatheses values in English and in NL / FL₁, CT serving as a highlighting device, contributing to students awareness improvement with respect to diatheses logic and raison d’être, based on observed similarities between three languages. The already displayed pattern analysis, AV / PV formula presentation, elucidation of verb phrase decomposition, AV ↔ PV transformations, etc., in English, may be performed to a different extent with specific student groups, in French and Bulgarian as well, depending on learner level of knowledge and overall teaching / learning context.

Learners may be shown by means of a PowerPoint presentation some of below displayed English, French and Bulgarian instances illustrating different passive structures. In case there are more advanced learners, comments can be more detailed; otherwise, simple presentation and a few purposeful comments usually turn out to be completely satisfactory. However, this presentation most important objective to be reached needs to be students’ awareness of the existing form / semantics similarity between various passive types in English as well as in Bulgarian and French. To contribute to noticing and understanding, PV components can be characteristically underlined.

English essential types of passive ⁴³

1. Standard passives (This really well-known book was written by Tolstoy.).

2. Simple passives with GET...EN ("Barry got invited to the party.").

3. Complex passives with BE...EN ("John is thought to be intelligent.").

4. Complex passives with HAVE...NP...EN ("Alice had her purse snatched while shopping downtown.").

5. Stative passives ("The wells are located near the edge of the reserve.")⁴⁴.

6. Impersonal passives ("It is said that figs are better for us than bananas.").

7. Adjectival Passive ("The strike was unexpected")⁴⁵.

8. Passives of ditransitive actives ("Liz was given the money by Ed"; "The money was given Liz by Ed").

9. Passives with a stranded preposition ("It was dealt with by the boss"; "Her hat had been sat on").

10. -en form non-finite complements ("I want them cooked by Angela")⁴⁶.

French essential types of passive

1. Standard passives (Ce tableau a été peint par un grand peintre.).

2. Impersonal passives (Voix passive impersonnelle) ("Il a été perdu un sac et un porte-monnaie (par des voyageurs)."⁴⁷).

3. Factitive passives (Voix passive factitive) ("Paul fait donner un livre à Marie par Luc") (quoted from Muller 2005: 2).

4. Reflexive passives (Voix passive réfléchie) ("Ce vin se déguste avec plaisir") (quoted from Decles, Guentcheva 1993: 74).

5. Adjectival passives (Voix passive adjectivale) ("Une fois le travail terminé, nous sommes partis"; "La ville est entourée de murailles" (ex. of Muller 2005: 9).

6. Passives based on se faire; se laisser; se voir + infinitif constructions (Voix passive basée sur les constructions se faire; se laisser; se voir + infinitif) ("Paul s’est fait laver la voiture (par Julie)"; "Paul s’est laissé donner un livre par Marie"; "Parker s’est vu remettre la Légion d’Honneur" (ex. of Veecock 2008: 9-11).

Bulgarian essential types of passive

1. Standard passives (Типична страдателна диатеза) ("Този роман е написан от Иван Вазов, а не от Елин Пелин.").

2. Factitive passives (Фактитивна диатеза) ("Той се бръсне винаги при Стефан.").

3. Impersonal passives (Имперсонална пасивна диатеза) ("По този въпрос много е говорено и писано.")⁴⁸).

Passive periphrasis CT through translation text comparisons

Translation texts (EN / FL₁ / NL) exploration in terms of taught category structure, values and functioning is a strategy within CT which can be applied at different stages of AV / PV teaching, though, to be efficient, basic introduction into taught matters in terms of form / semantics in English must have been carried out. Contrastive presentation of the passive within translation texts is aimed, likewise the above procedures, at category features displaying, along with its functioning, in the framework of EN / FL₁ / NL context, this way CT playing the part of prominence device, contributing to further understanding. Translation materials equally provide the opportunity of jointly implementing CpT with CT, due to naturally occurring other categories within text materials, displaying similarities or differences with taught forms.

To provide illustration we shall refer to following paragraphs examination (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2012c); such materials can be implemented in a business ESP English course or to some extent in general English courses, as the latter set the objective of also teaching some basic specialized language, which intersects with general language, being typically and frequently used.

Text 1

In the period 1994-2010 there had been two peak moments related to reforms in patent legislation:

A Patent Act was adopted in Bulgaria in 1993 which radically changed Bulgarian patent law system, including its harmonization with the practice of European countries. This was followed by several years in which existing inventor certificates were transformed into patents, which determined the high degree of patent activity of Bulgarian persons over the period. (...)

In 2002, Bulgaria became part of European patent system which expanded the territory of application of European patents. This was followed by a process of validation of European patents so that they could be valid on the territory of Bulgaria, a process which received an additional boost after the country became a fully-fledged member of the EU in 2007 (after Innovation.bg 2011).

Text 2

Pendant la période 1994-2010 il y eut deux moments pics liés à des réformes à l’intérieur de la législation de patente:

Une Loi des brevets d’invention fut (a été) adoptée en 1993; cette loi modifia (a modifié) complètement le système de législation de patente en Bulgarie, y compris son harmonisation avec la pratique des pays Européens. Quelques années s’ensuivirent, au cours desquelles les certificats d’auteur disponibles furent (ont été) transformés en brevets d’invention, ce qui détermina (a déterminé) l’activité de patente élevée de la part de personnes bulgares (...).

En 2002 la Bulgarie devint (est devenue) membre du Système de patente européence qui élargit (a élargi) le territoire de validité des brevets d’invention européens. Cet événement fut (a été) suivi par un procès de ratification de brevets d’invention européens dans le but de les rendre valides sur le territoire bulgare; ce procès devint (est devenu) plus dynamique à la suite de l’admission du pays dans l’UE, en tant que membre à part entière en 2007 (after Иновации.бг 2011, author’s translation).

Text 3

През периода 1994-2010 г. има два пикови момента, свързани с промени в патентното законодателство:

През 1993 г. в България е приет Закон за патентите, който коренно променя българската патентноправна система, което включва нейното хармонизиране с практиката на европейските страни. Следват няколко години на трансформиране на съществуващите авторски свидетелства в патенти, което определя високата патентна активност на български лица през този период. (...)

През 2002 г. България става член на Европейската патентна система, което разширява територията на действие на европейските патенти. Следва процес на валидизиране на европейски патенти, така че да имат действие и на територията на страната, който получава допълнителна динамика след приемането на страната за пълноправен член на ЕС през 2007 г. (after Иновации.бг 2011).

To facilitate analysis and explanation PV / AV forms are typically underlined; first, they are explored in terms of form / semantics / use in English text, and then, in both, French and Bulgarian material. AV / PV / tense / aspect / use discrepancies between materials are also referred to, attention being paid to semantics hues stemming from this fact. To achieve consistency, grammar / semantic isomorphism phrases can be considered first (e.g., was adopted; fut (a été) adoptée; е приет) and then, these ones, testifying to lack of isomorphism (e.g., were transformed; furent (ont été) transformés; трансформиране; by a process of validation of European patents; par un procès de ratification de brevets d’invention Européens; процес на валидизиране на европейски патенти), to promote noticing and attract learner attention. Complete passive structures are put forward, along with these ones, deprived of by - phrase; if needed, PV instances are studied with respect to grammar / semantic components relationships. A topic not to be underestimated, tense / aspect use within AV / PV examples, in three texts, is referred to, this way corroborating knowledge about AV / PV verb phrase (rf. above in slides presentation) and tense / aspect implementation regularities, equally valid for the active as well as for the passive; contextual factors contributing to AV / PV / tense / aspect use need to be also taken into account to strengthen awareness and knowledge.

CpT in passive diathesis teaching

CpT advantages having already been commented on earlier in this chapter, some ideas will be only briefly put forward with respect to this strategy implementation within the passive periphrasis teaching. Concise presentation of similarities / differences between the periphrasis, perfect and -ed adjectives has proved a valuable LLS approach as it leads to better grasping of AV / PV components formation and value, and, hence - to taught category more accurate and appropriate use. Resultativity understanding as a common feature to the above mentioned categories leads to better comprehension of AV / PV doer / recipient relationships, and, consequently of verb phrase decomposition regularities.

Concise presentation of similarities between the passive and related categories

Similaritiesbetween the passive and related categories can be displayed by means of offered to learners’ attention transformations, such as:

1. There is a broken vase in the room⁴⁹);

2. Somebody has broken the vase in the living room;

3. The vase in the living room is broken;

4. The vase in the living room has been broken;

5. He came across a broken vase;

6. The vase was already broken;

7. The vase had been broken;

8. The vase was / had been broken by a naughty child.

9. .............................................

Offered examples are analyzed in terms of form / semantics (rf. the above slides), attention having been directed at specifically stressed components. Learners investigate past participle broken, and, supported by lecturer reach at the understanding of its functioning as adjective (1, 5); adjective - participle (3, 4, 6, 7) with respect to specific context; past participle (2) and past (passive) participle (8). If possible, transformations may continue, to witness to common features of passive, -ed adjectives, past participle and perfect. Depending on teaching / learning context, learners may be told that resultativity logically functions as compared forms common joining link⁵⁰).

Such type of analysis corroborates learner understanding in terms of common nature of forms, through the fact that the vase was broken because somebody broke (had broken) it = it was / had been broken (by someone), etc., on the one hand, and, on the other, stimulates awareness of taught category functioning and components, based on the above comparisons. Transition between compared categories having been revealed, learners may be referred to other exemplifying instances to corroborate their understanding.

LLS implemented in teaching verbids (participles, -ing, -ed -adjectives and gerunds)

Most frequently applied LLS within verbids teaching are likewise within the above category, form / semantics analysis, elucidation questions, transformations, CpT and CT, all of these aimed at highlighting, noticing and understanding enhancement. These approaches application, along with sub strategies implemented, e.g., pattern analysis, images, video presentation, etc., will be concisely illustrated below.

Similarly to the passive and diatheses in general, -ing, -ed - adjectives, participles and gerunds, need special attention in the process of their presentation to learners, due to existing convergences in terms of lexical values and divergences with respect to grammar functions. This is the reason why many EFL and ESP students, even among university learners, use these categories erroneously, this way contributing to poor degree of understanding in communication. What is more, the passive and gerunds, being typical in specialized literature sources, need to be given also more prominence when teaching ESP learners.

A useful presentation technique is getting learners briefly acquainted with the above intralanguage interference reasons, greatly preconditioning mistakes stemming from lack of form / value differentiation. Thus, for example, students may be told that there is a difference between exhausting and exhausted, that most often -ing adjectives refer to things, conveying a process, though, under specific circumstances, learners can be also informed that a person can not only be annoyed and irritated in a particular situation, but also annoying and irritating, as a result of their conduct. Concepts of situation and conduct are stressed on, examined forms being tightly related to activity (conduct) or result (state, situation). More advanced students can be informed, before carrying out CpT, that -ed / -ing forms meaning depend on related categories, which will be further commented on. If appropriate, students may be also asked to point out which of the forms is an adjective among the following: a building; building equipment; They are building a new sports centre in town; He’s interested in building; He worked a lot, while building this house, etc., and motivate their choice, based on basic knowledge about adjectives function⁵¹.

ESP on geotechnics university students may be offered illustrative examples, such as drilled shafts and auger drilling; hammered piles and hammering (a process); retained material and retaining walls; reinforced walls and reinforcing; interlocked and interlocking sheets of steel; loaded material, loading process and loading; devastated area and devastating potential, a bearing wall and bearing⁵² and next asked whether -ing and -ed words have the same meaning.

The following paragraphs will focus on LLS implementation while jointly teaching the verbids, which does not mean categories cannot be individually presented, e.g., -ed-adjectives in contrast with -ing-adjectives; gerunds in juxtaposition with -ing -words in general and the progressive periphrasis, etc., teaching order and techniques depending on characteristic teaching circumstances, among which course length, learners’ profile, needs and objectives⁵³. Needless to say, various LLS do intersect, so they cannot be sometimes clearly discernible; in addition, not all approaches are applicable to the same extent; lecturer’s creativity and ability to use the appropriate procedure at the right moment is really valuable as it contributes not only to enhanced learner understanding, but also, to improved LM.

Conducting CpT within verbids and progressive periphrasis

To properly implement CpT, general features of compared categories need to be presented understandably to students.

There are evidently many similarities, for instance, in terms of form / semantics between present participles, adjectives and gerunds, these hybrid forms being characterized in our view (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2015c, 2017b), by an ascending gradation in activity, activeness or progressiveness from gerund (deverbal noun) (stage 1) through adjective-present participle (-ing adjective) (stage 2), to typical present participle (term of ours) (stage 3). All enumerated forms are hybrid ones, assuming activeness, the essential verbal characteristic, and also features typical to adjectives (-ing adjectives) or nouns (gerunds).

Apart from similarities, how are then verbids different? Advanced or proficiency students may be told that there is a serious leakage⁵⁴ between the typical present participle used in the progressive periphrasis and the -ing adjective. It is interesting to note, when working with advanced and motivated students, that continuous periphrasis progressiveness is associated with its locative connotation equivalent to to be in the process of doing something (rf. Comrie 1976: 99 in Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2012a), locativity preconditioning stage process expression, or progressiveness, tightly related to this connotation. It may be hypothesized that the periphrasis was derived from the original "I am in learning" structure (Cohen 1989: 126). This process co-occurrence or "concomitance" (Cohen 1989: 126) and the idea of an activity placed "inside" a process, predetermine the examined category progressiveness and temporariness. It is crucial to note there is a semantic transition⁵⁵ between progressive periphrasis typical present participle and the -ing-adjective, the typical participle exhibiting a verbal process and the adjective, combining activeness with adjectival semantics.

Exemplifying sentences (see below) may be offered to illustrate commented on transition and, this way, contribute to learners’ understanding of -ing adjectives activeness, stemming from their close connection with the present participle. Such grasping is likewise valuable, preconditioning and corroborating students’ knowledge in -ing -words in general as well as in progressive periphrasis formation and values.

Thus, for instance, learners may be offered the following transformation examples (examples of ours) revealing in Huddleston’s perspective (Huddleston 1984: 318)⁵⁶ ing-adjectives and present participles tight connectedness. Thus, learners are supported in gaining awareness that an -ing adjective bears the semantics of activity, progressiveness and tension, the second utterance (see below) relating the adjective to the verb, and the third one, referring to prices in the process of fluctuation (change, alteration) by means of copula verb be and the present participle.

• Fluctuating prices are typical nowadays.

• Fluctuating prices are prices which frequently fluctuate.

• Prices are currently fluctuating.

Such utterances examination (accompanied by translation if needed) contributes to better grasping of -ing - adjectives values, which is supposed to considerably reduce their erroneous use stemming from intralingual interference with - ed- adjectives.

A few more examples will be provided with respect to categories teaching in ESP context.

Exemplification within the ESP on geotechnics course

• Drilling equipment is equipment used in drilling (in a drilling process).

• The phrase "Multipurpose equipment drilling the ground" stands for "multipurpose equipment which drills / IS DRILLING the ground".

• Drilling a well, you sharply boost the resale value of your property.

• She heard him drilling a hole in the rock.

• Up-to-date equipment IS DRILLING the ground.

The above examples display activeness ascending gradation⁵⁷ from gerund (drilling) - adjective (drilling equipment; drilling process) - participle (drilling the ground; Drilling a well; heard him drilling a hole) - present participle in the progressive periphrasis (IS DRILLING). Learners are usually able to notice -ing -words value similarity as drilling equates to drilling process; it also stems from put forward semantic connections that: if a drilling process is being carried out, then drilling equipment is being used, or, drilling equipment IS DRILLING the ground.

Transformations, such as below presented ones⁵⁸, further emphasize on gerunds mixed essence, this way facilitating learners in their comprehension. Transformations have also turned a valuable tool in grammar teaching in general, and, more specifically in verb phrase requirements practical elucidation.

• Pile driving is used in building foundations.

• Construction process requires pile driving.

• He is interested in pile driving.

• The best solution is pile driving.

• Pile driving in water is rather specific.

If appropriate, attention may be drawn to the fact that italicized phrases reveal not only nominal characteristics through the nominal slots they occupy, but also, evident in transformations verbal activeness as "Pile driving is used in building foundations" is equivalent to "To build foundations workers drive piles" or "The best solution is pile driving" refers to "The best you can do is drive piles".

-Ing - words CpT frequently involves the progressive periphrasis more detailed examination. However, suggested procedures below can naturally be also implemented in continuous aspect independent elucidation; all approaches though can be used in different perspectives, proportions and contexts depending on learners’ profile, knowledge and objectives.

A few ideas will be put forward with respect to progressive aspect presentation within an ESP on automotive engineering course⁵⁹.

Progressive periphrasis teaching

As already stated, CT and CpT approaches involve a number of sub strategies, which can be also individually implemented, such as, typical examples presentation, form / semantics analysis, componential analysis, pattern exploration, transformations, elicitation questions focusing on categories features noticing and, thus, better grasping, etc. Most essential procedures will be concisely illustrated hereby.

Elicitation exemplifying utterances presentation

A number of exemplifying utterances excerpted from an ESP on automotive engineering course book and specialized sources were offered to readers’ attention (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2017b) with respect to progressive periphrasis study at two complementary levels, the first aimed at focusing on componential analysis, while the second - at considering the periphrasis values and use as a whole. Other strategies jointly applied include highlighting, pattern analysis, inferences making and hypotheses verification, along with elicitation questions aimed at category essence understanding and leading learners to its formula presentation. The above mentioned elicitation illustrative utterances are referred to as it follows:

1. "Which instrument shows that you are indicating to turn left or right? / "Which instrument shows how often the engine is turning over?"⁶⁰ (Kavanagh 2007: 21).

2. "We’re launching the model with a 3.7 and a 4.2-litre petrol engine." (Kavanagh 2007: 31).

3. "Other car makers are also starting to take aluminium seriously." (Kavanagh 2007: 41).

4. "A leading car manufacturer is recalling 70,000 models in the UK..." (Kavanagh 2007: 46).

5. "...car makers and suppliers are developing occupant-sensing systems." (Kavanagh 2007: 47).

6. "Automobiles are facing difficult times with challenges such as global warming, higher crude oil prices, and traffic accidents." (Mitsubishi El. ADVANCE 2008: 1).

7. "Although the major manufacturers are losing interest in battery vehicles, the new low speed vehicles and electric bikes are making headway..." (Larminie & Lowry 2003: 269).

8. "Most major vehicle manufacturers are also currently making developments in fuel cell vehicles." (Larminie & Lowry 2003: 277).

9. "...efficiencies of solar photovoltaic cells [in automobile manufacturing] are rising all the time whilst their cost is decreasing." (Larminie & Lowry 2003: 18).

10. "Your mid-range model is now entering the fourth year of its... life cycle." (Kavanagh 2007: 44).

11. "...global takeovers, mergers and partnerships are constantly reshaping the car industry." (Kavanagh 2007: 53).

12. "When you arrive at the service station, the spare parts are already waiting for you." (Kavanagh 2007: 55).

13. "...technological developments for... are becoming increasingly important for the whole auto industry." (Mitsubishi El. ADVANCE 2008: 1).

14. "Mitsubishi... is now manufacturing the sensors... commercially." (Mitsubishi El. ADVANCE 2008: 5).

In the beginning of presentation, learners’ attention is focused on specific exemplifying utterances highlighting, contributing to the examined category structure investigation. The above mentioned strategies implementation is facilitated by questions, such as below presented ones:

1. "Which are the periphrasis components?"

2. "Can you read them aloud in each example? Why are they specifically underlined?"

3. "What are they characterized by?"

4. "How is the present participle formed?"

5. "Can you think of any other forms it is similar to and which ones?"

6. "Does the present participle refer to stativity or dynamicity?" (both concepts having been explained beforehand with respect to relative lack of change for a certain time period and, alterations, progressive action development, etc.)

7. "Can you make any conclusions, based on examples, as to the main value of be + present participle periphrasis?", etc.

Quite naturally, especially when working with more advanced university students, values turn out to be relatively easily understood, patterns get faster recognized, their similarity with other -ing-words is quickly mentioned, conclusions founded on form / semantics analysis within the periphrasis and the utterance as a whole, not underestimating progressive markers, for instance, lead learners into formulating progressive periphrasis basic values, supported by lecturer assistance and explanation. How is it relevant to university ESP learners? It is important, this type of knowledge contributing not only to students’ adequate discrimination between simple and continuous, and hence, to simple / continuous aspect communicatively correct implementation, but also to learners’ proper differentiation between concepts, such as stativity, dynamicity, lack of change, alteration, tightly related to stative / dynamic verbs adequate use. What is more, students get able to acquire gradually the understanding of existing aspectual differences between "At the moment your product range consists of a compact, a limousine, a large limousine and a convertible" (Kavanah 2007: 52), "You now have a joystick, steering-by-wire, braking-by-wire" (Kavanah 2007: 55) and the progressive in ex. (8) above, which contains currently, a similar adverbial marker; they become able to realize that the "now" markers not necessarily require the progressive, other factors sometimes preventing its value from actualization.

Supported by lecturer, ESP learners start to grasp that all examples share imperfectivity (or for students, the feature of a non-finished process) and dynamicity features; that current time reference is explicitly present in (8), (10), (14) and implicit across many others, with respect to context; that some utterances may be interpreted as planned future events illustration depending on context ((2), (3)); that (4) - (9), (11), (13), (14) utterances depict stage processes as a result of plurality (models, systems, challenges, manufacturers, vehicles, bikes, developments, cells, takeovers, mergers and partnerships, developments, sensors), thus additionally contributing to the idea that the progressive frequently presents a non-homogeneous and gradual process; that stage process concept becomes more intense when explicitly corroborated by intensifying adverbials such as all the time (9), constantly (11) and increasingly (13); that process repetition value, frequently combined with the meaning of habitually recurrent processes, can be illustrated through both instances, (1) and (12), stemming from specialized knowledge about driving and engine functioning (1) and, from certainty expressed by "When you arrive ..." (12).

Progressive periphrasis formula presentation, based on the above features of the category, and, logically following from previous explanation strategies, is likewise an efficient LA improvement approach. Learners are shown the formula below (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2017b) this way summarizing so far acquired knowledge:

ACTIVITY DOER + finite linking verb TO BE + VERB-ING (present participle) + verb characteristics (e.g., stative, dynamic) + contextual markers value = imperfectivity, dynamicity, progressiveness with specific time reference, stage process, limited duration, situation alteration and, based on these, transposed values repetitive events, planned future events.⁶¹

-Ed- words (adjectives and participles) teaching

As already mentioned above (rf. Passive periphrasis elucidation section), transformation procedures greatly facilitate grasping of -ed-adjectives and past (perfect, passive) participles values and functioning. Learners may be again referred to similar transformation utterances, or, to the same ones (rf. above), with respect to teaching context, to be shown through pattern exploration and form / semantics analysis -ed words common characteristics in terms of form and value, all of them possessing resultativity, typically expressed in the perfect, passive, participle clauses, and, adjectives.

Thus, EFL learners can be told, for instance, that: one is exhausted because of an exhausting event, -ed-adjective referring to a result stemming from -ing-adjective activeness (rf. above), whereas ESP students may be offered the example: Concrete is "reinforced" if it has been reinforced most often through steel reinforcing bars or steel reinforcing (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2015c); based on illustration, students can be lead into similar conclusion making. If needed, learners can be again referred to CpT procedures above, displaying by means of transformation utterances, -ing words (participle, adjective and gerund) common essence, transitional values, in compliance with their functions, as well as existing ascending activeness gradation starting from gerunds, going through adjectives and arriving at participles, the highest position being occupied by progressive periphrasis present participle. This way CpT is supposed to be properly conducted, studied categories being compared on a larger scale (among -ed- words individually, then, -ing-words explored separately, and, finally, -ing / -ed adjectives in juxtaposition), learners building a more complete concept with respect to taught material.

Additional strategies may be likewise implemented, corroborating taught categories grasping, such as video materials, images, diagrams and schemes illustrating categories dependencies; for instance, a picture showing a worried person because of having lost their key may be used while explaining that he / she is worried because of a worrying event; of course, differences between "he / she is worried because he / she has lost her key" and "he / she is worrying about her lost key", need to be commented on, the first one, referring to a result, state, way of feeling, while the second, to an intense process.

Higher level university learners and, especially students interested in EFL teaching and translation, based on the approaches applied, may be lead into inference making, to avoid intralingual interference, by means of learner-understandable terminology, that verbids (-ing/-ed adjectives, participles and gerunds) differ:

• by active / passive association (diathetic affiliation) (active, in present participles, -ing adjectives and gerunds, and passive, in past participles and -ed adjectives);

• by activeness degree - present participles (the highest degree), -ing adjectives (lower degree), gerunds (the lowest degree, but still present) and past participles and -ed adjectives (lack of activeness, presence of passiveness);

• by type of process presentation (aspectuality) (progressiveness or perfectness), -ing verbids (associated with progressiveness in general) and -ed verbids (associated with perfectness), and,

• by connectedness with nouns or adjectives (participles, with adjectives and gerunds, with nouns).

As a result of categories permeability elucidation, ESP students not only improve their LA, but also become able to differentiate more adequately in terms of form / semantics between "steering wheel", "The driver is steering the car along the road" or "This model steering has been greatly improved"; "constantly increasing performance", "increased performance", "Increasing engine performance leads to better fuel consumption", "Engineers are increasing this model fuel performance". Thus, due to better understanding, learners become better language users.

The following lines will be devoted to the examined categories CT with French and Bulgarian due to the already proved beneficial outcomes deriving from this approach implementation, which serves as highlighting.

-Ing-adjectives CT with French counterparts

Learners may be offered examples, such as "des fruits mûrissants; cheveux grisonnants; une vapeur suffocante"⁶². Students with FL_1/n French (if their level allows it) are told that deverbal -ant adjectives ⁶³ in French most often function as -ing-adjectives equivalents due to their similarities in form / semantics. French deverbal adjectives, likewise (to some extent) their English counterparts, are related in form / values with French present participle, conveying a developing process parallel to another one, both categories referring to intense activity. To reveal this connection, French learners may be offered further illustrative examples, such as "paroles convaincantes" which is equivalent to "paroles convainquant les autres", this way promoting their understanding that deverbal -ant adjectives can be frequently replaced by -ant present participles due to their common nature with participles⁶⁴.

Apart from pattern and form / semantics analysis, students are shown further transformations, based on the above introductory examples, accompanied by English translation as it follows, contrasts between both languages categories still contributing to English / French -ing / -ant adjectives and participles activeness and progressiveness awareness, e.g.:

• "Des fruits mûrissants" (ripening fruit)  mean "des fruits qui murissent", being partly equivalent to "des fruits mûrissant vite (fruit ripening fast);

• "Des cheveux grisonnants" refer to "des cheveux qui sont en train de devenir gris" (greying hair), partly equivalent to" des cheveux grisonnant peu à peu" (hair greying slowly, little by little);

• "Une vapeur suffocante" means "une vapeur qui fait suffoquer" (suffocating steam), which is partly equivalent to "une vapeur suffocant tout le monde" (steam suffocating everybody).

Before summarizing, learners are referred to differences between mûrissants and mûrissant, to focus again their attention on participle - adjective transition and are guided into brief contrasts between English -ed adjectives and past participles and their French counterparts.

English ↔ French translation of isolated utterances (or even chunks of utterances), containing examined material, along with practical consolidation activities treating the above categories in both languages, is recommendable for understanding corroboration.

-Ed - adjectives CT with French counterparts

Similarly to -ing -adjectives, -ed-adjectives CT can be carried out through convergences / divergences presentation between both languages categories⁶⁵.

Learners may be offered examples, such as: "les lettres reçues", "La chemise rangée"⁶⁶, "une tasse cassée", "des fleurs fanées"⁶⁷ to attract their attention to French deverbal adjectives the form of which coincides with past participle one; the so-called "accord" or agreement (e.g., reçu,e, reçus, reçues) in adjectives and past participles under specific circumstances with French perfect may be also mentioned to emphasize on deverbal adjectives and past participles resultativity as well as on past participles semantic closeness to adjectives. Similarities between French deverbal adjectives and past participles in general can be commented on in the perspective of Huddleston’s 1984 analysis (rf. above). Advanced French students may perform transformations on their own or take part in that process; contextual clarification and English translation need also to be put forward, e.g.:

• "Nous n'étudierons que les lettres reçues avant le 30 avril" (rf. Gr. reverso) (letters received); "Les lettres reçues sont des letters que nous avons reçues" (letters we have received);

• "La chemise rangée dans le tiroir gauche contient les factures." (rf. Gr. reverso) (put away shirt); "La chemise rangée est la chemise que nous avons rangée" (we have put away) or "la chemise qui a été rangée par qqn" (has been put away);

• "La tasse cassée a été cassée par qqn" (has been broken) or "La tasse est cassée parcequ’elle l’a cassée" (she has broken it); "Les fleurs fanées sont fanées par l’effet du temps" (withered under the impact of weather conditions).

More advanced learners can be this way guided through similar transformations into consolidating their understanding of closeness in terms of form / semantics between the passive, perfect, past participles and deverbal adjectives not only in English (see above), but in French as well, CT being again combined with CpT; learners are guided into conclusion making as to resultativity being the common feature of -ed contrasted and compared categories in both languages.

LA can be further deepened through working on parallel English / French exemplifying utterances, consolidation activities in both contrasted languages, English ↔ French translation materials, performing lecturer-guided translation activities in case EFL learners are studying French as NL or FL₁.

-Ing and -ed -words CT with Bulgarian

Likewise CT approach implementation with French counterparts, Bulgarian equivalents characteristic features need to be concisely elucidated for higher prominence degree. Evidently, depending on teaching context, sub strategies may be applied, such as, pattern analysis, highlighting, translating, hypothesizing about functions based on form and context.

To attract attention at similarities and differences between both languages categories, learners may be told that apart from adjectival functions, likewise in English, Bulgarian present participles can also function as nouns. However, in contrast with English present participles, these nouns (e.g. "работещи") do not coincide by value with English gerunds, referring to active personal characteristics and not, to potential processes as is the case in English; their activeness, though, needs to be put forward, being essential to Bulgarian category, this way, further contributing to Bulgarian present participle characterization, a vital approach in conducting CT.

The following lines will be devoted to concise CT English / Bulgarian presentation of English gerunds in the perspective of the ESP on geotechnics course carried out with MSc students; more detailed explanation turns out to be important taking into account gerunds frequent use in scientific and technical sources, which makes compelling improvement of this category characteristic features comprehension.

Among essentially implemented sub strategies within English / Bulgarian CT we shall refer to the following ones:

English / Bulgarian equivalents analysis, lecturer-guided inferences making, transformations, scheme use, contrasted passages use

Learners are offered some most frequent types of English gerunds Bulgarian equivalents, e.g., drilling (пробиване), piling (набиване на пилоти), installing (монтиране), grouting (инжектиране на циментов разтвор), lagging (обшиване, настилане) or sliding (свличане, приплъзване), their attention beingagain focused on -ing- participles, adjectives and gerunds connection, on the one hand, and, on the other, on Bulgarian gerunds form, which although does not overlap with present participle one, does convey potential activity.

Depending on context, students are guided into inferences making with respect to Bulgarian deverbal nouns formation. More advanced learners can reach the understanding of Bulgarian gerunds being based on unfinished verbs marked with the - не suffix, conveying activeness of a process, time and way of development of which depend on the utterance verbal characteristics. Before commenting on verb type bearing finishness (completeness) or unfinishness (incompleteness) characteristics, students are shown verb pairs, such as, пробия - пробивам; набия - набивам; обшия - обшивам, based on the above examples, and are briefly informed about inherent verbal values of finishness / unfinishness in Bulgarian, though some of which may be utterly evident through context only; conclusion as to unfinished verbs combination with -не suffix becomes rather natural.

English / Bulgarian CT within -ed-adjectives and related forms can be performed either individually or in support of gerunds more detailed characterization, based on gerunds (and -ing-words in general) features comparison with -ed adjectives (and -ed -forms in general) features, combining again CT with CpT.

Thus, for instance, learners may be offered transformation utterances, such as: "Набити пилоти с дължина 80 м." is equivalent to "Набити са пилоти с дължина 80 м." or "Изградена от фирмата стена" refers to "Подпорната стена е изградена от фирмата.", this way orienting students’ thinking in terms of already presented similar transformations in English with respect to English -ed-adjectives, past participles and passive. Learners may, as a result of lecturer-guided analysis, make the inference of past participles tight connectedness with adjectives and passive categories, this time in Bulgarian, which in CT perspective is supposed to further improve their awareness in both, English and Bulgarian forms functions and values; forms resultativity may be also emphasized on. If allowed by teaching circumstances, illustrative schemes with respect to passive structure and formulae (see above), can be equally applied, to better depict categories in terms of their interdependence.

CT and CpT approaches may be further deepened by pair words construction in Bulgarian and their English translation, extended by the progressive use, e.g.: набити пилоти - набиване на пилоти, etc., driven pilots - pilots driving - workers are driving pilots, to contribute to verbids essence better understanding.

To enhance CT impact, specialized (and / or graded) text passages implementation written in contrasted languages, may be applied at all teaching stages. Thus, for instance, ESP on geotechnics students can be offered passages similar to put forward below paragraphs⁶⁸, followed by elicitation and explanatory questions; contrasted categories need to be specifically underlined and unknown terminology - explained, prior to examined material analysis.

Text A (English): There are three ways to place piles for a deep foundation: driving, drilling or installing by the use of an auger. Driven piles are extended to their necessary depths by the application of external energy through hammering. Drilled piles are created through a drilling process, drilling a hole to the appropriate depth and filling it with concrete.

Text B (Bulgarian): Съществуват три начина за поставяне на пилоти при дълбоко фундиране: набиване, сондиране или монтиране посредством сонда. Набитите пилоти са удължени до необходимата дълбочина чрез прилагането на външна енергия от забиване с чук. Сондираните пилоти са получени при сондиращ процес, пробиване на отвор на подходящата дълбочина и запълването му с бетон.

The above texts need to be analyzed individually / contrastively by means of elicitation and comprehension questions, among which: "Why are certain categories in both texts differently underlined?"; "Are driving, drilling, installing, hammering, drilling a hole, filling it (Text A) nouns, adjectives or typical present participles and why?"; "What is their syntactic behaviour?"; "Which are their Bulgarian equivalents (Text B)?"; "What class of words do they belong to and what is their syntactic behaviour?"; "What do English and Bulgarian deverbal nouns express (comment also on фундиране, прилагането, whose English correspondences are not gerunds)?"; "Is there a semantic connection between drilling and drilling process?"; "Which is drilling process Bulgarian equivalent?"; "How does сондиращ function grammatically, which class of words does it pertain to?"; "Are the above -ing words related to the progressive periphrasis form and value and how?"; "Can you find the -ed adjectives (Text A)?"; "How are they similar and different from the underlined passives?"; "Can you analyze Bulgarian equivalents (italicized words) in terms of their connectedness; you can perform transformations to be more explicit (see above). (Text B)?"

CT approach may likewise involve other sub strategies, such as learning-purpose translation, which is supposed not only to enhance understanding, but also, to provide precious feed-back to lectures and learners with respect to teaching / learning problems. Hence, students must become able, to some extent, at least, to set their own adequate and feasible learning objectives. Error correction, another sub strategy, needs to be, when possible, contrastively and comparatively performed.

Progressive periphrasis CT with French / Bulgarian may be conducted by means of already mentioned approaches, amongst which, translated texts parallel investigation, pattern analysis, underlining, CpT within contrasted languages, equivalents presentation in terms of form / semantics, inferencing and hypothesizing, etc.

Most of these strategies, having already been exemplified on other occasions, and, CpT of -ing-forms, having been displayed above, along with progressive periphrasis formula and characteristic features, it will be only briefly mentioned that learners need to get acquainted with typical to Bulgarian and French equivalent forms markers, such as:

• Bulgarian - "сега", "постоянно", "постепенно", "поетапно", "в скоро време"; verbs, e.g. "планира се", combined with unfinished (imperfective) verb aspect ("нсв. вид");

• French - "être en train de + infinitif", "être occupé, e à", "graduellement", "peu à peu", "pas à pas", "envisager de", etc.,

these markers and unfinished verbal aspect, conveying equivalent to some extent semantics in contrasted languages.

To create a more complete idea of used LLS, either individually applied or implemented within CT and CpT approaches, English perfect CT with NL Bulgarian, mainly in the framework of ESP business courses, and with French, in general ELT, will be briefly commented on. English category CT has turned out to be of crucial importance due to frequently observed interlanguage interference with Bulgarian equivalents; it has already been established⁶⁹, similarities between functional equivalents, with respect to forms and values, within each one of contrasted languages, likewise, lead to further difficulties in taught categories elucidation as functional equivalents do not completely overlap in terms of form / semantics / use.

English perfect CT with French and Bulgarian

English CT study with Bulgarian is related to a prior investigation on French → English preterit and perfect equivalences, and deriving from research CT implications (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2010, 2011). Before displaying essentials in English / Bulgarian perfect CT some English / French CT peculiarities will be mentioned. It has been revealed, based on research⁷⁰ that most frequent French perfect equivalents in English respectively are the English preterit and English perfect, whereas English perfect French equivalents are basically represented by the French perfect (passé composé), in its various acceptations, and the present. It needs to be mentioned that the English preterit has turned out to be much more recurrent than the English perfect, in terms of French → English correspondences, a fact which can be proved by means of French perfect dual nature, rather similar to Bulgarian perfect (минало неопределено време), possessing the ability of conveying not only resultativity, acquired experience, omnitemporality, recent events, current relevance and related values, meanings typical to the English perfect as well, but also accomplished and finished processes, deictically determined past events, values characteristic to the English preterit, which motivates French category functioning, under specific circumstances, as synonymous to French simple past, notwithstanding preserved by the passé composé resultativity hue.

To successfully conduct English / French CT in terms of the perfect, as already mentioned, interlanguage interference needs to be fought with, along with intralingual negative transfer (within each contrasted language), the latter contributing to the former. Positive transfer, though, has to be also explored and benefitted from, based on put forward form / semantics convergences between categories, grasping of which is likely to enhance awareness and, hence, performance.

Sub strategies applied in categories CT within the framework of ELT are essentially the following ones:

• Revealing to learners convergences and divergences between both languages categories

Similarities and differences with respect to form / semantics need, of course, to be presented up to learner understanding and accompanied by exemplifying utterances; such utterances will not be though displayed here, suitable ones being offered in a contrastively examined passage below. Students must be likewise shown, through examples and categories form / semantics elucidation, that both languages perfects witness to the so-called language asymmetry, according to which NL (or / and FL₁) categories do not necessarily display identical to FL₂ (English in current study) categories values, notwithstanding formal symmetry (see above). Thus, learners are guided into understanding that English utterance formation should be based on value analysis and not on inner Fr (Bg) translation, which may be frequently unreliable, leading to erroneous correspondences. For concision, awareness procedures applied within convergences / divergences revealing will not be hereby dwelt upon, English / French translation materials offered below and followed by comments and elucidation / comprehension questions, being an approach likewise applicable for that purpose. Quite evidently, translated isolated exemplifying instances may be also applied, and not passages as below, depending on teaching context requirements.

• Schemes presentation

As already mentioned, schemes, diagrams and presentations, play the part of highlighting, focusing learner attention on patterns and regularities, this way facilitating analysis. Examined categories essential functional equivalents may be offered to promote understanding of language asymmetry as well as to facilitate overlapping values grasping.

• Error analysis

Error analysis, a powerful LLS, combining pattern analysis, translation, functional equivalences elucidation, hypothesizing, hypotheses verification and inference making, if applied, needs to be first performed before learners individually by lecturer, next, carried out with students participation as well, and finally, by students themselves⁷¹. Thus, for example, learners may be required to analyze an erroneous example, such as * "He has worked in Paris for 3 years, from 2005 to 2008." Implementing Corder’s (1971 - rf. to in Brown 1987; 1981) error analysis algorithm in lecturer-guided analysis, learners can be asked to:

1. Literally translate the utterance into FL₁ (French); in case this translation is equivalent to a correct French utterance, learners are told that the error stems from negative transfer (interference).

2. Translate into English with error correction; lecturer assistance is provided if necessary.

3. Explain wrong utterance meaning if such a meaning exists; learners are referred, if needed, to functional equivalents presentation.

4. Examine interference error in contrastive analysis perspective; students are offered assistance in already performed form / semantics CT elucidation and are next required to explain correct utterance again based on contrasted languages categories values.

Contextualization, lexical approach implementation and generative situation

Pre-teaching of vocabulary and expressions can be frequently successfully implemented, along with naturally stemming from it personalization in CT (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2011), as well as in CpT as a highlighting type mechanism, based on association formation in the purpose of orienting learners’ attention to specific markers requiring specific categories use.

Personalization in pre-teaching involves creation of interest towards certain topics and themes, typical vocabulary introduction, characteristic language functions use and respective grammar means applied to achieve them. Students are motivated to express their views on a particular issue, in English, and then, in both contrasted languages, if possible, which contributes to higher degree of categories understanding in terms of form / semantics / use due to created associations, a powerful cognitive device, in both languages again.

This strategy also functions in compliance with the so-called "generative situation" (Clanfield et al. 2007)⁷², leading learners into oral or written expression inevitably requiring corresponding necessary functions, and, thus, specific vocabulary and grammar, implementation. We will refer to in that respect to grammar categories lexical activation, according to Grozdanova (2003: 86), where she writes that "mental states brought about by one type of exponents - for instance, lexical, could be later reinstated by another type of exponents - grammatical".

Thus, for example, quite often since and for prepositions, along with adverbs, such as always, never and yet⁷³, make learners create associations with the perfect, whereas time expressions, in 1989, last week, during the previous century, etc., with the simple past. The fact that for refers to a finished period of time as well, and, consequently, to completeness, lack of current connection, requiring the simple past use, and that since can function as a cause / result conjunction, having nothing in common with the perfect, demanding current activity preposition, must not be obviously underestimated.

Evidently, CpT and CT approaches, involving pattern and form / semantics analysis, function in symbiosis in grammar teaching, stemming from specific generative situations, due to better functional equivalents comprehension, and, hence, to better categories contextual grasping within each contrasted language. The following illustrative instance will be adduced hereby to corroborate CpT and CT approaches connection.

The erroneous perfect use in the utterance "He has worked for that multinational company for 5 years and then he left to set up his own business"* deriving from wrongly created associations of preposition for functions, related, according to some learners’ ideas, to perfect situations, can be remedied to through analysis triggered by questions, such as the ones below⁷⁴.

Is he still employed in the same company?; Which form, the past simple or the perfect reveal connection to the present (extended now)?; What does the preposition for mean?; What periods of time can it express, finished, unfinished or both?; How can we prove that the period referred to above is a finished one?; What type of activity is described by he left?; What does then mean?; What type of adverb is it?; If it is a sequencing word, what information (as to worked or has worked) does this provide us with?; Can a finished and subsequent process follow an unfinished one?; Are they compatible?; Can you translate the above examples into French / Bulgarian?; Which forms, French / Bulgarian present, perfect or aorist (French simple past, минало свършено време), are compatible with overall message meaning?

• Student text generation

Student text generation has revealed itself a useful cognitive strategy to be implemented within CT and / or CpT procedures, depending on learners’ profile, teaching focus and objectives, especially in categories teaching typically involving inter - / intralanguage interference. It can be affirmed that this approach application may be really efficient while teaching English perfect to learners with NL Bulgarian and FL1 French.

Learner generated texts (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2013d), if they are purposeful and aimed at conveying a precise and understandable message, in line with Swain’s output hypothesis (Swain 1993), represent a powerful strategy of taught categories understanding enhancement, structuring meaning into a form, this process involving error self-correction, hypothesis verification as to used language items functioning, searching for most appropriate language means of conveying message and values and adjusting meaning with respect to implemented forms and vice-versa. Needless to say, learners not only improve comprehension degree of language categories, creating a spoken or written text, but also develop their strategic skills, choosing the most suitable ways of expression, and consolidate language items use. To accomplish satisfactory results, though, students need to be asked to produce texts involving and naturally requiring corresponding generative situations and language functions preconditioning taught items implementation. Thus, English perfect teaching may greatly benefit from this approach application if learners are asked to produce texts related to CVs writing and accomplishments, for instance, these topics triggering the perfect use quite often. What is more, the perfect, past simple and present may occur jointly in such materials creation with respect to expressed values, this fact preconditioning CpT approaches implementation, if needed, as well as CT procedures for further clarification. Last but not least, efforts to achieve sentences and paragraphs coherence likewise contribute to LA improvement, coherence involving still higher comprehension degree of implemented language items and language functions.

• Translation materials use in CT, CpT

Translation materials can be implemented as corroborating taught categories features elucidation, most often within CT framework, which is based within this approach, on original and translation texts comparison. Thus, for example, in contrastively teaching English perfect characteristics through translated texts, original category and its functional equivalents, along with markers essentially accompanying it, need to be drawn attention at and explored. Put forward excerpts below (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2011), along with similar ones, can be used, in compliance with the teaching circumstances, either individually, at an initial phase, or in various CT procedures implementation, including form / semantics / use analysis, commenting on underlined words or phrases values, comparing both materials as a whole, or sentence by sentence, structure by structure, asking questions to focus learners’ attention at examined forms specifics. Thus, for example, questions may be asked with respect to markers, such as never, already, twice, three times, yet, in 1996 as well as contextual markers requiring were born and following past simple forms. Identical questions need to be further asked with respect to French translation material, providing necessary explanations in equivalents elucidation; French passé compose (passé simple) options need to be likewise differentiated from typically aspectual perfect uses, based on values elucidation, if relevant in teaching context. Isolated contrasted utterances may be also used in CT depending on teaching context specifics.

CHAMPIONS

The world of tennis has never seen two sisters like Venus and Serena before. Venus has already won Wimbledon three times and the US Open twice, though she hasn’t won the Australian or French Open yet. Serena, has won many grand slam titles including some against her sister.

The two sisters have come a long way from the poor area in California where they were born. It was full of violence and drugs, and the girls’ father, Richard, wanted to move to a safer place (...)."

Venus played in her first big tournament in 1996 and dominated women’s tennis in 2000 and 2001 (...) (Harris et al. 2009, ІІ: 34).

DEUX CHAMPIONNES

Le monde du tennis n’a jamais auparavant vu deux soeurs comme Venus et Serena. Venus a déjà gagné à Wimbledon trois fois, tout comme au championnat de US Open, deux fois. Cependant elle n’a pas encore gagné aux championnats de Australian ou de French Open. Serena a remporté plusieurs titres du grand chelem, y compris quelques-uns en jouant contre sa soeur.

Les deux soeurs ont marché beaucoup à partir de la région pauvre en Californie où elles sont nées (naquirent). Elle abondait en violence et en stupéfiants, et, le père des jeunes filles Richard voulait déménager dans un endroit plus protégé (...)."

Venus a participé (participa) à son premier grand tournoi de tennis en 1996 et a dominé (domina) dans le tennis féminin en 2000 et en 2001. (...) (translation is mine)

English perfect CT with Bulgarian

English perfect CT with NL Bulgarian, as already mentioned, needs to be carried out due to frequently occurring NL interference, the sources of which may be considered to some extent, close to FL₁ French negative transfer. As commented on earlier, intralingual interference stemming from Bulgarian (French) perfect forms / aorists convergences, greatly facilitates interlingual transfer. Some particular features of English perfect CT with Bulgarian will be presented hereby, teaching being examined predominantly in ESP business context.

• English / Bulgarian categories convergences / divergences presentation

English perfect and its Bulgarian counterpart presentation in terms of form / semantics convergences / divergences turns out to be crucially important to learners; on the one hand, they are supposed to understand that overlaps between categories are not universal, due to Bulgarian perfect dual nature, and, on the other, such grasping preconditions further explanation with respect to other Bulgarian categories, apart from the perfect (минало неопределено време), requiring the English perfect as functional equivalent, under specific circumstances. Bi-directional correspondences elucidation leads to functional equivalents fans, again in both directions, an efficient strategy, aimed at schematically presenting essential categories features. Learners receive explanation details not in strictly theoretical perspective, of course, unless they are training to become language specialists or FL teachers; most often, students are given the opportunity, by means of rather practically oriented awareness procedures or cognitive approaches, to reduce inner translation in utterances formation and, this way, strongly enhance their communicative competence.

The table below (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2013b, 2014c) offers characteristics which may be displayed to learners rather concisely, a most recurrent approach. Notwithstanding, below presented table, referring not only to essential similarities / differences in terms of form / semantics between contrasted categories, but also to linguists’ names and their works, along with later provided information with respect to researchers’ views on examined categories, will be offered to readers as well, for two reasons mainly: to more convincingly and exhaustively characterize the studied forms, and, this way, to better display implemented teaching approaches in applied linguistics perspective.

Table 1: Convergences and divergences between English and Bulgarian perfect

Having offered the table to learners’ attention, some complementary strategies need to be applied, to enhance understanding, such as the ones below.

• Learner-friendly table explanation

The above table needs to be elucidated to students with minimal terminology use, though the gist should be preserved; researchers’ names are not mentioned either unless under specific circumstances⁷⁵. A short explanatory procedure will be put forward hereby.

Learners are told first that "crosslinguistic" refers to a category typical for many languages, not just English, various "perfects", though, possessing not utterly identical values; what is more, the Perfect can be also examined as a category basically uniting two levels of language (morphological and syntactical), due to its structure. Secondly, students understand from lecturer explanation that "periphrastic" and "periphrasis" refer to a structure comprising two components at least, as it is the case in both contrasted languages (have in English and be in Bulgarian; past participle in English and мин. деятелно причастие in Bulgarian). Next, students are told that although auxiliaries are not the same in both languages, they perform a similar function, i.e., of attributing a past or current activity result to process recipient (subject); likewise, both languages participles, though not identical in functions, refer to result, this way the whole structure or periphrasis receiving the ability of expressing, in various contexts, related to resultativity meanings, among which: resultativity, current relevance, omnitemporality (with always, never), "not-yet" perfect, superlative perfect meaning (the best, the most intelligent person he has spoken to), experiential (more than one result acquisition). "Aspectual" and "deictic" terms are understandably introduced to advanced learners mainly as "aspect, aspectual - referring to ways of a process development, e.g., finished / unfinished; with some / punctual duration; single / repeated, etc." and "deictic - referring to specific moment in time and space". Learners are likewise informed that tense category is deictic (Present and Past simple in English), whereas the English Perfect is aspectual; on the contrary, learners should be understandably provided with explanations that Bulgarian tense system is much more detailed than the English one, and, in addition, that temporal and aspectual features are most often morphologically presented (or to students: "within the verb itself"). Students need to be also informed that Bulgarian perfect comprises duality - some of its uses are predominantly aspectual, whereas some - temporal and mixed. Advanced students are also told that "aorist, aoristic" concepts are related to the simple Bulgarian past, possessing features similar to its English counterpart. Such a detailed explanatory procedure, conveyed by means of easy to learners language, is necessary to be carried out as the most considerable amount of English perfect implementation errors stem not only from language interference, but also from the lack of discrimination between basic temporality / aspectuality concepts, leading to lack of values discernment and differentiation, negatively impacting students’ understanding as a result of existing differences between English / French / Bulgarian language systems, this absence of differentiation further contributing to interlanguage interference.

• Examples (En) presentation followed by lecturer NL interpretation

Another useful CT cognitive approach consists in the presentation (on the board or by means of PowerPoint slides) of appropriate illustrative examples in English to learners; exemplifying instances need to be also interpreted in Bulgarian laying stress on typically italicized and underlined phrases. This way, learners are provided with the opportunity to further grasp form / semantics essentials in terms of English /Bulgarian contrasted categories, following the above explanation.

E.g.: "He has already prepared the statements." - "Вече е приготвил отчетите."⁷⁶; "They haven’t answered her questions yet." - "Все още не са отговорили на въпросите му."; "She has worked for the company for a few years (and still does)." - "Тя работи в компанията вече в продължение на няколко години (и продължава да работи).", but "She worked for the company for a few years and then she left." - "Тя работи в компанията в продължение на няколко години и после напусна."

• Examples (Bg) presentation followed by lecturer En interpretation

This CT approach, likewise, contributes to more adequate correspondences learner comprehension, and, also prepares English and Bulgarian fan of functional equivalents construction and understanding. Appropriate illustrative examples are presented in Bulgarian to learners and interpreted in English, again laying stress on specifically italicized and underlined phrases; utterances may be written on the board or displayed through PowerPoint slides.

E.g.: "Говорили сме (вече) много по този въпрос." - "We have (already) discussed this issue."; "Откраднали са ценна картина от музея." - "They have stolen a precious painting from the museum."; "Написалa е три книги по тази проблематика (досега)." - "She has written three books on this topic (so far)."; "Той говори по телефона в продължение на последния час." - "He has spoken⁷⁷ on the phone over the last hour."

• Pattern observation and analysis

Learners may be led into that supplementary strategy uniting both, CT and CpT approaches, pattern observation and analysis, further increasing noticing and understanding. With respect to teaching context features, comprehension questions may be also asked in English and next translated into Bulgarian for better values grasping. Depending on students’ knowledge level⁷⁸, learners can formulate answers in Bulgarian and then translate them into English. Hereby suggested questions are related to the above examples.

E.g.: "How are both languages perfects formed?"; "What do both participles refer to?";"Can you discover differences between English past (perfect) participles and Bulgarian мин. деятелно причастие, referring to Написалa е"?; "Can you hypothesize about English perfect underlying value, based on auxiliary have meaning?"; "Can you hypothesize about Bulgarian perfect values, based on auxiliary be meaning"?

Based on explanatory procedures above, learners can be told, if experiencing difficulties while answering questions, that both participles refer to resultativity; Bulgarian participle in "Написалa е" differs by agreement, although its English counterpart does not alter; English perfect emphasizes on result acquisition due to auxiliary have, whereas Bulgarian category, on putting the sign of equality between subject (тя) and result (е написала).

• CT exploration and elucidation of adverbs, articles, prepositions, time phrases, along with context

Explanation of perfect aspect markers, among which, "not yet", "already", "never", "since, for prepositions", "for + current relevance", "lately, recently", the superlative, needs to be carried out in Bulgarian and English, unless working with advanced or proficiency learners, laying stress on values signaled by the above markers. Learners are told that specific prepositions and adverbs, along with characteristic context, are compatible by meaning with past-present process, present connectedness, current result or experience, expected result, and, for that reason, with the present. However, to fight intralingual interference, students must be also informed that some typically perfect markers can be used with the simple past or other categories with hues variations; learners’ attention may be drawn at for + finished process use and since as cause / result meaning conjunction (rf. above). Bulgarian counterpart markers need to be likewise mentioned and explained in both languages. Students can be required, for practice, to build examples implementing English markers and then translate them into Bulgarian; next, they may put forward instances with corresponding Bulgarian perfect markers and translate them into English, e.g.: "They have recently promoted him." - "Наскоро са го повишили / повишиха го."⁷⁹; "Наскоро (напоследък) е писала /писа/ по тази тема." - "She has recently (lately) written on this topic."

• Schemes presentation

With respect to that strategy use learners are shown English perfect / Bulgarian equivalences fan, naturally stemming from preceding procedures, and, preconditioning the approach of a double fan (English → Bulgarian → English) implementation; it will be presented further on. This way, learners will be able to better grasp the fact that Bulgarian perfect is not the only English perfect counterpart, on the one hand, and, on the other, that English → Bulgarian equivalences are not universally applicable in both directions.

English → Bulgarian perfect periphrasis equivalences fan may be shown to learners, each correspondence being supported by illustrative examples as below⁸⁰. If possible and if allowed or required by learners’ profile, more detailed exemplification can be provided to equip students with better correspondences illustration, and, thus, with more complete understanding. Exemplification hereby is within the framework of business ESP classes; the approaches applied are aimed at English / Bulgarian categories semantic overlaps presentation in a learner-friendly perspective (Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2015b). Examined forms as well as markers need to be specifically highlighted to additionally increase learners’ noticing and facilitate elucidation, different strategies mutually complementing themselves as it can be seen.

En. Perfect - Bg. Present equivalence

"For several years now Innovation.bg has refuted a number of myths related to the standard system of indicators for measuring innovation as... a result mainly of R&D." (Innovation 2011: 12) - "Иновации.бг вече няколко години опровергава редица митове, свързани със стандартната система от индикатори за измерване на иновациите като... и резултат основно на научните изследвания." (Иновации 2011: 12).

"The economic and financial crisis has put a considerable strain on Europe’s public finances ..." (Reports 2011: 25) - "Икономическата и финансовата криза оказва огромен натиск върху европейските публични финанси..." (Анализи 2011: 28).

En. Perfect - Bg. Perfect equivalence

"The public administration in Bulgaria has not made an effort to offer this instrument to the potential beneficiaries of the Operational Program." (Innovation 2011: 17) - "Държавната администрация в България не е направила усилие да предложи този инструмент на потенциалните бенефициенти на Оперативната програма." (Иновации 2011: 18).

"The staff engaged in R&D has increased by 20% in the last ten years." (Innovation 2011: 37) - "За последните десет години броят на персонала, зает с НИРД, се е увеличил с 20%." (Иновации 2011: 37).

En. Perfect - Bg. Present/Perfect passive equivalence

These types of examples are interesting because of the fact that Bulgarian present and perfect share one and the same passive form based on the verb съм present and past passive participle; thus, context analysis may sometimes function as the only and decisive factor with respect to present / perfect values discernment within Bulgarian equivalent if English correspondences are not available. Bulgarian perfect / present form / semantics similarities, in the active as well, do contribute to intralanguage, and, hence, to interlanguage interference.

"So far, measures have been focused primarily on final consumption..." (Reports 2011: 15) - "Мерките, предприети досега, са насочени предимно към крайното потребление..." (Анализи 2011: 16).

"Bulgaria has harmonized its legislation with the EU‟s "Climate - Energy" package..." (Reports 2011: 80) - "Българското законодателство е приведено в съответствие с пакета на ЕС "Климат и енергетика"..." (Анализи 2011: 89).

En. Perfect - Bg. Aorist equivalences

"The introduction of a green energy line in the electricity bills of customers has focused public attention on the high preferential pricing of RES-E." (Reports 2011: 13) - "Включването на добавка за зелена енергия към сметките за електроенергия на потребителите насочи общественото внимание към високите преференциални цени на електроенергията от възобновяеми източници." (Анализи 2011: 14).

"A decade has passed now since the Lisbon Strategy and the subsequent first EU Sustainable Development Strategy for Europe were formulated." (Reports 2011: 17) - "Измина едно десетилетие от разработването на Лисабонската стратегия и на последвалата я първа Стратегия за устойчиво развитие на Европейския съюз." (Анализи 2011: 19).

• Brief introduction to Bulgarian equivalents characteristics

Depending on the teaching circumstances, likewise CT with FL₁ French learners, CT with NL Bulgarian is related with briefly introducing advanced and motivated learners into Bg present, perfect and aorist features in the purpose of justifying English / Bulgarian correspondences, and, of preparing students for grasping double English / Bulgarian /English equivalences fan; this approach evidently will be applied differently with EFL, ESP learners and with students training to become language specialists, translators and FL teachers.

Thus, for example, students may be told in Bulgarian and in English that Bulgarian present (сегашно време) conveys a process parallel to the utterance moment, the process coinciding with the moment of speaking or overlapping with a wider time period, including or passing through the "now"⁸¹, e.g. "Иновации.бг вече няколко години опровергава редица митове." (rf. above). Learners can be asked to translate the example again into English and motivate their translation with English equivalent values.

Learners need to be informed, in both languages again, by means of accessibly elucidated terminology, that Bulgarian perfect (перфект, минало неопределено време), on the other hand, is characterized with dual nature (referring to a current result, with no deictic references, or to a past time moment, with deictic references, this way exhibiting closer to the aorist values). For further clarification, students can learn that "aoristic" perfect values, though, still possess resultativity and stemming from resultativity present connectedness⁸². Illustrative examples, such as the following ones may be offered, the first one related with Bulgarian perfect resultativity, whereas the second, with deicticity: "Държавната администрация в България не е направила усилие да предложи ..." (rf. above); "Вчера е работил на компютъра, бяха отворени няколко прозореца". Learners can be asked to translate the examples into English and motivate their translation choices in terms of English correspondences; they may be also told to be careful with time reference in the second instance, this type of time references being incompatible with the English perfect, if some features of English contrasted categories need to be reminded.

With respect to Bulgarian aorist (аорист, минало свършено време) students are shown, explanations being carried out in Bulgarian and in English, that this category represents most often English simple past most prominent counterpart as Bulgarian aorist conveys deictically determined (by means of time indications or context) processes, finished (accomplished or not carried until its end) before the utterance moment⁸³. However, the examined Bulgarian category likewise possesses⁸⁴, along with its typical perfective (finished) meaning, a value of perfectness and resultativity, which allows it to also function as an English perfect equivalence (rf. Stankov 1976). Learners need to be informed that, in addition, Bulgarian aorist expresses expected past processes, expectation of activity fulfillment uniting past and present, this way contributing to perfect hues creation, though displaying eye-witnessing value, not characteristic for the perfect. These features combination strongly motivates utterances such as the above ones, where Bulgarian aorist functions as a perfect (has focused) equivalent, e.g. "Включването на добавка за зелена енергия към сметките за електроенергия на потребителите насочи общественото внимание към ..." (rf. perfect - aorist equivalents).

• Functional equivalents double fan presentation

Correspondences explained in Bulgarian and English, a double fan of equivalences can be offered to learners’ attention, such as below. Students are told that Bulgarian / English equivalences are not exhaustively presented, the most crucial ones being put forward with respect to established interference fighting.

Having displayed English perfect equivalences double fan, students are provided with the opportunity to acquire awareness of the fact that English / Bulgarian correspondences do not overlap entirely in terms of form / semantics/ use, which not only increases NL categories understanding, but also English forms grasping, and, this way reduces intralanguage interference, along with often related to it interlanguage negative transfer.

If allowed by teaching context, learners can be shown the following consolidating instances:

Bg. Present (сегашно време) -> En. Perfect only if the utterance moment is included in a larger time lapse, e.g. "Той (вече) работи за компанията в продължение на пет години." - "He has worked for the company for five years (and still does)." Though, "Тя чете вечер преди лягане." cannot be translated through the perfect, its counterpart being the present, referring to habitual processes.

Bg. Perfect (перфект - минало неопределено време) -> En. Perfect only if Bg category refers to current relevance, experience, result or related values, e.g. "Те не са анализирали резултатите все още." - "They haven’t analyzed the results yet." Though, the perfect in "Преди два дена му е изпратила поща." cannot be translated through the perfect, its equivalent being the simple past "sent" due to deictic time reference, notwithstanding Bulgarian aoristic perfect resultativity.

Bg. Aorist (аорист, минало свършено време) -> En. Perfect only if Bg aorist conveys resultativity and present connectedness, context also preconditioning this hue, e.g. "Нека научим какво решение взеха депутатите в парламента (днес)." - "Let us learn about the decision MPs have taken in Parliament (today)." Though, Bulgarian aorist in "Нека научим какво точно се случи вчера на срещата." cannot be translated through the perfect, its equivalent being the simple past "happened", Bulgarian aorist functioning with its typical value of completeness and deicticity.

• Generative situations use, personalization as well as learner texts creation

These are strategies which can be implemented within English perfect CT with Bulgarian, likewise within the examined category CT with French. Strategies application principles being rather similar, these approaches are not going to be considered hereby; CpT, of course, is quite likely to be used in error correction procedures in case errors stem from poor differentiation between English and / or Bulgarian respective categories (rf. the above double equivalences fan).

Before concluding the current chapter on some essential and frequently used in author’s work LLS types and their implementation in EFL and ESP teaching, a few words will be written with respect to word-formation cognitive approaches.

• Word-formation procedures in CT and CpT perspective

Word-formation based approaches can function as strong cognitive procedures, which may be carried out, with respect to teaching circumstances, either independently, or within the framework of CT, most often accompanied by CpT.

Word-formation procedures elucidation, which is frequently accompanied by NL translations of word-formation vocabulary items, essentially aims at better meaning clarification of taught general vocabulary or terminology. Approaches need to be evidently applied differently, to the extent needed, depending on learners’ profile and objectives. Explanation of word-formation patterns, along with elucidation of derived items semantics, generally⁸⁵ contributes to base words value understanding as well as to affixes functioning better comprehension. Thus, for example, learners are shown, within the ESP on catenary overhead lines course (rf. Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2017a), the following relationship, illustrative utterances having been excerpted from specialized technical sources: feed - feeder; transform - transformer; transmit - transmission; safe - safety and are provided with information about noun formation suffixes meanings. Students need to be also told that awareness of word-formation procedures is crucial as it facilitates them in recognizing grammar functions of an item within specific context; this type of understanding promotes adequate grasping (reception) and building (production) of a message. Provided explanations may involve CpT based on word-formation grammar exponents juxtaposition in terms of form / semantics; thus, for instance, learners enhance their comprehension within word pairs, such as start / starter; inject / injection; insulate / insulation / insulator, etc., which facilitates them in adequate utterances building in ESP as well as in EFL learning. To be more efficient, word-formation elucidation is frequently accompanied by NL Bulgarian translation of base and derivative items, along with synonymous vocabulary introduction (e.g., referring to the above derivational examples translation - feed - feeder - захранвам - захранвач - подавам - подавач, фидер; transform - transformer - трансформирам - трансформатор; transmit - transmission - предавам - предавка, предавател, трансмитер, трансмисия; safe - safety - безопасен - безопасност, обезопасявам), contributing, along with NL grammar word-formation analysis, to affixation logic understanding. Explanations need to be aimed at elucidating the fact that affixes reflect specific semantic relationships, a fact important to be referred to especially if working with advanced learners and / or students training to be translators and FL teachers. Grammar functions analysis in English and in Bulgarian considerably corroborates comprehension, e.g. in "track", "track position" and "track slab" (within the ESP course on catenary overhead lines), where learners realize that although "track" is deprived of adjective word-formation suffix, it can perform not only as a noun, but also as adjective (likewise "transmission" and "transmission lines", Ruzhekova-Rogozherova 2017a); this way, students extend their knowledge in rather frequent adjectival noun behaviour. Learners can be informed, if needed, about specific affixes implemented in nominal, adjectival, adverbial, and verb word-formation. Knowledge widening in terms of these regularities needs to involve the awareness, though, that word-formation types are not ubiquitously manifested, e.g., an adjective such as "trackful"* does not exist.

© Boryana Ruzhekova-Rogozherova
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© E-publisher LiterNet, 10.05.2018
Boryana Ruzhekova-Rogozherova. Language Awareness, Language Learning Strategies, Contrastive and Comparative Teaching in ELT and ESP. Varna: LiterNet, 2018